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[李靖]印象“泼水节”:交织于国家、地方、民间仪式中的少数民族节庆旅游(7)


    [17] 2002年的田野资料是笔者在景洪作为一个个体参加节庆的现场经历。此时我在版纳的一个村寨已经做了近七个月的博士论文田野调查,但同时这又是我第一次参加WSF,因此我在现场的观察经历既带着难以避免的研究者的视角又是一个文化外来者的感触。2010年夏天的课题注重历史和文化局内人的角度,集中搜集了当地新年节的官方档案资料并就景洪傣族和汉族本地人的新年节的经历以及视角作了田野采访。
    [18] Davis, Susan. 1986. Parades and Power: Street Theater in Nineteenth-Century Philadelphia. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
    [19] Mueggler, Erik. 2002. Dancing Fools: Politics of Culture and Place in a "Traditional Nationality Festival". Modern China 28 (1): 3-38.
    [20] Anagnost, Ann. 1993. “The Nationscape”, in National Past-Times: Narrative, Representation, and power in Modern China. P. 161-175. Durham and London: Duke University Press; Gladney, Dru. 1994. Representing nationality in China: Refiguring majority/minority identities.” The Journal of Asian Studies 53, 1: 92-123; Schein, Louisa. 1997.Gender and internal orientalism in China. Modern China 23, 1: 69-98;
    [21] Stoeltje, Beverly, and Richard Bauman. 1989. Community Festival and the Enactment of Modernity. In The Old Traditional Way of Life: Essays in Honor of W . E. Roberts, ed. Robert E. Walls and George H. Shoemaker, pp. 159-171. Bloomington, Ind.: Trickster Press.
    [22] 《西双版纳报》创刊于1957年3月4日,州政府的机关报。
    [23]从《西双版纳报》的官方报道看,在78年前,景洪傣历新年节庆祝只有两天,一天划龙舟,一天泼水。而历年的节庆活动照片中,都有划龙舟的镜头。2010年在笔者对景洪一位86岁的傣族老人的采访中,当问起他从民国时期到现在这么多年来觉得最有意思的新年节庆活动,他回答说是划龙舟。(2010年7月18号)
    [24]杨筑慧:《 旅游业发展中的节日符号操弄——以西双版纳傣族泼水节为例》,《 中央民族大学学报》(哲学社会科学版),2009年第3期。
    [25] Siu, Helen. 1990. Recycling Tradition: Culture, History, and Political Economy in the Chrysanthemum Festivals
    of South China. Comparative Studies in Society and History, Vol. 32, No. 4 , pp. 765-794.
    [26] 《西双版纳报》2000年4月14日,周末扩大版。
    [27]比如:91年, 中国南方九省区民俗旅游展销会;96年,四国边境地区文化艺术节;99年昆明世博会; 2000-2002年昆明国际旅游节分会场;2009-2012年版纳边境贸易旅游交易会,等等。
    [28] 这些学者集中于中国的省情研究(provincial studies),代表性的研究包括:David Goodman and Gerald Segal [eds.] 1994. China Deconstructs: Politics, Trade and Regionalism. London: Routledge; Hans Hendrischke 1999. “Provinces in competition Region, identity and cultural construction.” Pp. 1-30 in Hans Hendrischke and Feng Chongyi (eds.), Political Economy of China's Provinces: Comparative and Competitive Advantage. Routledge; Timothy Oakes. 2000. “China’s Provincial Identities: Reviving Regionalism and Reinventing ‘Chineseness’.” The Journal of Asian Studies 59, 3: 667-692.
    与此类似,Susan McCarthy从民族文化复兴的角度,把当地政府为了发展旅游而参与民族文化复兴的行为称之为“经济工具主义(economic instrumentalism)。”McCarthy, Susan. 2009. Communist Multiculturalism: Ethnic Revival in Southwest China. Seattle: University of Washington press.
    [29] John Fitzgerald. 2002. “The Province in History,” Pp. 11-40, in John Fitzgerald (ed.), Rethinking China's Provinces. London and New York: Routeledge.
    [30] David Goodman. 2002. “Structuring Local Identity: Nation, Province and County in Shanxi during the 1990s.” The China Quarterly No. 172: 837-62; Feng Chongyi. 1999. “Seeking Lost Codes in the Wilderness: The Search For a Hainanese Culture.” TheChina Quarterly No. 160: 1036-56; Timothy Oakes. 2000. “China’s Provincial Identities: Reviving Regionalism and Reinventing ‘Chineseness’.” The Journal of Asian Studies 59, 3: 667-692.
    [31] Sue Tuohy. 2003. “The Choices and Challenges of Local Distinction: Regional Attachments and Dialect in Chinese
    Music.” Pp. 152-86 in Harris Berger and Michael Carroll (eds.) Global Pop, Local Language. University Press of Mississippi;
    Hongliang Yan and Bill Bramwell. 2008. Cultural Tourism, Ceremony, and the State in China. Annals of Tourism Research, Vol. 35, No. 4, pp. 969–989;陈志勤:《 非物质文化遗产的创造与民族国家认同——以“大禹祭典”为例》,《文化遗产》 2010年第2期。.
    [32] 一位景洪傣族人指出:“过去主要是以傣族为主的,其他民族他只是玩一玩啊,参与,但唱歌跳舞都没有参加。现在政府组织呢,我们各个民族,13个民族都有参加。” (田野采访时间:2010年7月21号)
    [33] Li, Jing. 2013. The Making of Ethnic Yunnan on the National Mall: Minority Folksong and Dance Performances, Provincial Identity, and “The Artifying of Politics (Zhengzhi Yishuhua).” Modern China 39 (1): 69-100.
    [34]参看《西双版纳报》1961年4月18号。
    [35]参看《西双版纳报》1991年4月16号。
    [36] Stoeltje, Beverly. 1993. Power and Ritual Genres: American Rodeo. Western Folklore, Vol. 52, No. 2/4, Theorizing Folklore: Toward New Perspectives on the Politics of Culture. 135-156.
    [37] 高丙中:《 民间的仪式与国家的在场》,《北京大学学报》(哲学社会科学版) 2001年第1期。.
    [38]在笔者的田野采访中,一个采访人提到“放水灯”和“取圣水”的仪式时,指出: “过去断了好多年了,现在又捡回来了,这是很好的。” 采访人的这种肯定态度是在谈起政府组织的节庆活动的商业化趋势的语境中出现的,并非关于“真实性”的问题。(田野采访时间:2010年7月21号)
    [39] Oakes, Timothy. 2000. “China’s Provincial Identities: Reviving Regionalism and Reinventing ‘Chineseness’.” The Journal of Asian Studies 59, 3: 667-692; Broudehoux, Anne-Marie. 2004. The Making and Selling of Post-Mao Beijing. New York and London: Routledge.
    [40] 杨民康.:《贝叶礼赞—傣族南传佛教节庆仪式音乐研究 》, 北京:宗教文化出版社,2003年,第166页。
    [41]杨民康.:《贝叶礼赞—傣族南传佛教节庆仪式音乐研究 》, 北京:宗教文化出版社,2003年,第169页。
    [42] 参看:高丙中:《 民间的仪式与国家的在场》,《北京大学学报》(哲学社会科学版) 2001年第1期。从历史的角度来看,这种互惠双赢的权力互动也应该考虑到版纳南传上座部佛教历史上政教合一的传统。参看张春燕硕士论文中所引的陶云逵关于车里傣历新年的节庆活动。陶云逵 《车里摆夷之生命环》,《边疆研究论丛》,1949年,第3期。张春燕 《传统与现代—民族旅游业开发中的泼水节》, 硕士论文。中央民族大学: 中央民族大学, 2010年。
    [43] Gabbert, Lisa. 2011. Winter Carnival in a Western Town: Identity, Change and the Good of the Community. Utah State University Press,第124页。
    [44]不同的研究表明,版纳当代的中青年佛教上层人士对现代化和旅游业冲击下的傣族文化现状具有着强烈的危机感和责任感。他们不仅积极地建立与东南亚寺院的联系并兴建自己的僧学院,而且在面临外部社会的冲击力量时,并没有关起寺门,而是把这些力量融入自己的宗教文化实践。从赞助傣族本土流行乐队以推动傣语的使用和家乡归属感, 鼓励僧学院的学生同时接受国家义务教育并学习英文电脑,到利用自身的权威和国家宗教政策维护旅游化对傣族寺庙的入侵,以及自己规划寺庙对游客的开放及设计所售的宗教品等,这些傣族宗教人士都显示出具有自主性的参与并努力驾驭的态度。因此,把佛像抬出寺庙、佛爷带领僧侣参加官方化旅游化的公众节庆游演,可以说与这种态度相应和。请参看:杨民康.:《贝叶礼赞—傣族南传佛教节庆仪式音乐研究 》, 北京:宗教文化出版社,2003年; Sara Davis. 2005. Song and Silence: Ethnic Revival on China's Southwest Borders. Columbia University Press; Borchert, Thomas. 2008. Worry for the Dai Nation: Sipsongpanna, Chinese Modernity, and the Problems of Buddhist Modernism. Journal of Asian Studies Vol. 67 (1): 107-142. Li, Jing. 2004. Molding Dai-ness on China's Periphery: Ethnic Tourism and the Politics of Identity Construction in Contemporary Xishuang Banna. Ph.D. Dissertation. University of Pennsylvania.
    [45] Kang, Xiaofei. 2009. Two Temples, Three Religions, and a Tourist Attraction : Contesting Sacred Space on China's Ethnic Frontier. Modern China, Vol 35 (3): 227-255. 引文参看第 242页。
    [46] 根据Sherry Ortner的定义,“文化政治”是指“一种抗争,是对在一定时期一定的社会秩序中占统治地位的官方关于现实的象征性表象的抗争(the struggles over the official symbolic representations of reality that shall prevail in a given social order at a given time)”。 Ortner, Sherry. 1989. Cultural Politics: Religious Activism and Ideological Transformation Among 20th Century Sherpas. Dialectical Anthropology 14:197-211。参看第200页。
    [47] Wood, Robert. 1997. Tourism and the State: Ethnic Options and the Construction of Otherness. In Tourism, Ethnicity, and the State in Asian and Pacific Societies, edited by M. Picard and R. Wood, p.18-24. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
    [48] Magliocco, Sabina. 2001. Coordinates of Power and Performance: Festivals as Sites of (re)presentation and Reclamation in Sardinia. In Ethnologies 23 (1): 167-188.
    [49] Hillman, Ben. 2003. “Paradise Under Construction: Minorities, Myths and Modernity in Northwest. Yunnan." Asian Ethnicity 4 (2): 177-90; Walsh, Eileen. 2005. From Nu Guo to Nu’er Guo. Modern China Vol. 31 (4): 448-486; Margaret Swain. 2002. “Looking South: Local Identities and Transnational Linkages in Yunnan.” Pp. 179-220 in John Fitzgerald (ed.), Rethinking China's Provinces. London and New York: Routledge.
    [50] Oakes, Timothy. 1998. Tourism and Modernity in China. London: Routledge.
    [51] Brandes, Stanley. 1998. Power and Persuasion: Fiesta and Social Control in Rural Mexico. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
    [52] Handler, Richard, and Jocelyn Linnekin. 1984. Tradition, Genuine or Spurious. Journal of American Folklore 97:273-290. 参看第276页:“tradition… is inseparable from the interpretation of tradition in the present”。
    [53] Greenwood, Davydd. 1977. Culture by the Pound: An Anthropological Perspective on Tourism as Cultural Commoditization. In Hosts and Guests: the Anthropology of Tourism. Smith, Valene ed. Pp.171-186. Philadelphia: the University of Pennsylvania Press.
    [54] Picard, Michel. 1990. Cultural Tourism in Bali. Indonesia 49:37-74.
    [55] Mueggler, Erik. 2002. Dancing Fools: Politics of Culture and Place in a "Traditional Nationality Festival". Modern China 28 (3):3-39; Oakes, Timothy. 1998. Tourism and Modernity in China. London: Routledge; Margaret Swain. 2002. “Looking South: Local Identities and Transnational Linkages in Yunnan,” in John Fitzgerald (ed.), Rethinking China's Provinces. Pp. 179-220. London and New York: Routledge.
    (本文刊于《民俗研究》2014年第1期)
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