三、非洲妇女史研究的特点
多维度的非洲妇女史和性别研究反映了非洲社会的多重性和多样性。非洲各国女性经历的巨大差异使对非洲妇女史研究的概括面临巨大的挑战，但非洲社会组织的某些共同特性和经历，如奴隶贸易、殖民主义、基督教和伊斯兰教的传播、种族隔离、去殖民化和独立运动、现代化进程、全球化等因素必定影响女性的生活，使之呈现一定的共性。自20世纪70年代非洲妇女史研究的兴起之后，其发展方式几乎与欧美妇女史并行，但同时也反映了特定的非洲史的发展趋势。(78)
梳理非洲妇女史的发展过程，我们可以发现下列几个特征。
首先，研究内容和研究观念上发生了转变。与其他国家的妇女史发展脉络相似，非洲妇女史从一开始研究精英妇女——国王的母亲或配偶、商人公主以及民族和解放运动中的女性，在马克思女权主义等影响下逐步对工农阶级的妇女产生兴趣，到后来专注于非洲历史背景下的性别研究。早期的研究者倾向于把妇女受压迫和不平等的地位归结为殖民主义的影响，而新的研究者倾向于归结为本土和外来父权主义的相互作用，认为新的压迫模式是殖民者和非洲男性长者共谋的结果。最近的研究继续以新的方式挑战主流学界，提出以妇女为中心的修正主义来论述例如非洲民族主义涌现等重要主题，强调妇女作为母亲、性和分娩等主体身份，而不是把她们当作其他社会经济变化中的应变量。(79)受非洲史学发展的影响，妇女史研究也从早期比较单一的学科，主要是人类学、考古学、史学和社会学，向多学科发展，研究理论、方法和视角也呈现多元化。
其次，非洲妇女从无声的他者进入学界主流。非洲妇女史，尤其是殖民前的历史在某种程度上忽视了女性书写女性的内容，文本中极少有女性声音的出现，包括西方和非洲本土的学者。殖民时期的性别政策以及殖民教育的理念在殖民地形成了一个男性特权阶层，在实际上抹杀了女性任何有意义的存在。(80)殖民教育的不平衡和不平等造成了非洲妇女很迟才进入学术领域。另外，由于独特的男性文化阶层早一步在非洲形成，而这一男权主义的文化圈加上非洲传统的父权制对女性作者无形中造成的压迫，导致非洲女性成为无言的他者。由于早期研究中很少有非洲本土女性视角，因此许多对女性的解读存在误差。(81)
妇女教育的发展让越来越多的本土妇女进入学术领域，非洲民族解放、妇女运动中又涌现了一批女权主义学者。(82)同时专门研究非洲妇女的杂志，如第一本覆盖整个非洲大陆的性别研究杂志《女权主义非洲》(Feminist Africa)的出现，给女性学者提供了研究的平台。
20世纪60—80年代非洲妇女史研究主要以西方学者(包括女学者)和非洲男性学者为主体，例如前文提到过的美国女历史学家艾丽斯·伯杰、克莱尔·罗伯森等在非洲妇女史研究方面影响较大。许多西方史学家之所以对非洲妇女产生兴趣，一方面是由于新社会史和妇女史学发展的影响，更重要的原因是这些史学家原本的研究领域就是非洲史，因此对非洲妇女史的研究只是其研究领域中的一小部分而已。还有部分研究非洲妇女的西方女学者本身就是激进的女权主义者，如美国康奈尔大学非洲发展所的女学者朱迪思·范·艾伦(Judith Van Allen)；还有些女学者本身是非洲裔，如美国黑人女历史学家菲洛米娜·基奥玛·斯特迪(Filomina Chioma Steady)；当然还有部分学者以研究妇女史为主。
直到20世纪80年代以后非洲本土女学者的队伍才开始形成和壮大，让她们有机会从自己的角度考察非洲社会和历史。比较突出的例如有肯尼亚历史学家塔比瑟·卡诺构(Tabitha Kanogo)(83)、肯达·穆托吉(Kenda Mutongi)(84)、还有上文提到过的尼日利亚史学家博兰勒·阿韦(Bolanle Awe)、加纳史学家艾格尼丝·艾杜(Agnes Akosua Aidoo)等。但是她们的作品主要在非洲本土出版，在欧美学界的影响力较弱。整体上非洲本土女性学者数量远低于男性，而研究非洲妇女史的本土学者在人数和影响力上也不如西方。
最后，口述资料在研究中的大量使用。女性在非洲口述传统中独具特色。妇女不仅作为口头讲述的执行者而且也是知识的生产者，尤其是口头文学中的说教、道德规范和基础教育等内容。女性不仅是信仰、文化思想和个人或集体历史的参与者和传播者，而且也是创作者。(85)非洲口述传统中活跃的、强大的、与社会有关的女性存在为非洲历史研究，特别是妇女史研究提供了丰富的资料来源。
非洲口述史的新发展对妇女史的研究产生了重要影响。非洲妇女的历史研究必须以口述资料为基础这一点已被广泛认可，特别是对研究殖民前以及殖民时期的妇女尤其重要。针对非洲口述传统内容和形式的研究揭露了妇女在口述中扮演的主体角色；而研究中对口述资料的采用进一步促进了非洲妇女研究的发展。例如《卡罗的巴巴》(86)、《宗教和世俗意识形态中的妇女》(87)、《赞美黑人妇女》三卷本、(88)《流浪的女儿》(89)等就使用了大量的口述材料。
如果说20世纪中叶前非洲妇女史研究还很稀微，那么70年代后涌现的丰富研究表明非洲妇女不再是被历史遗忘的角色。非洲妇女史的发展既是新史学与非洲史学兴起的结果，也是非洲妇女运动和理论发展的产物。非洲妇女史的研究涉及非洲的政治、经济、法律、财产、文化、艺术、教育、家庭、婚姻、生育等多方面问题，为更全面了解非洲大陆提供了新的视角。缺少妇女研究的非洲史学是不完整的，只有把妇女还给非洲历史，也把历史还给非洲妇女，才能充分了解非洲妇女的过去与现在，了解非洲的性别关系，从而进一步促进非洲史学的发展。
注释：
①Basil Davidson,Africa in History:Themes and Outlines,rev.ed,Collier Books,1991,p.xxii.
②Nancy Rose Hunt,"Placing African women's History and Locating gender",Social History,Vol.14,No.3,1989,p.359.
③王建华：《当代非洲史学及其民族主义学派》，《西亚非洲》1988年第6期；舒运国：《非洲史研究入门》，北京大学出版社2012年版；张忠祥：《20世纪非洲史学的复兴》，《史学理论研究》2012年第4期；张忠祥：《口头传说在非洲史研究中的地位和作用》，《史学理论研究》2015年第2期；张忠祥：《20世纪70年代以来非洲史学的新进展——以医疗史研究为个案》，《史学集刊》2015年第4期；刘鸿武：《非洲实现复兴必须重建自己的历史——论B.A.奥戈特的非洲史学研究与史学理念》，《史学理论研究》2015年第4期；刘鸿武，张佳梅：《尼日利亚古代文化艺术史述略》，《西亚非洲》1999年第2期；刘鸿武：《论黑非文化特征与黑非文化史研究》，《世界历史》1993年第1期；李鹏涛：《20世纪80年代以来英美学界的殖民时期非洲史研究评述》，《世界历史》2015年第5期；张永宏、王涛：《非洲历史的整合与分割——非洲史研究的当代走向》，《世界历史》2013年第4期；张瑾：《非洲经济史研究的历程和视角》，《学术探索》2015年第6期等。
④洪永红：《1913年南非布隆方丹妇女运动初探》，《湘潭大学社会科学学报》1993年第4期与《从两次反通行证法看南非妇女运动》，《湘潭大学社会科学学报》1996年第1期；魏翠萍：《试论非洲妇女的社会地位及作用》，《西亚非洲》1994年第1期，《传统文化与非洲妇女人权》，《西亚非洲》1995年第5期；贺文萍：《和平发展与非洲的妇女解放》，《西亚非洲》1995年第5期；夏吉生：《非洲妇女在土地、财产继承和婚姻方面的法律地位问题》，《西亚非洲》1997年第4期，《跨入新世纪的非洲妇女》，《亚非纵横》2001年第3期；时春荣：《非洲妇女与“第二次解放运动”》，《西亚非洲》2007年第8期；魏晓明、李娜、吴霜：《在艰难中跃向平等—非洲女童教育现状分析》，《全球教育展望》2007年第3期；李伯军，石婷：《非洲妇女在武装冲突中遭受性暴力的人权保护法律问题及对策》，《广州大学学报》(社会科学版)2012年第5期；李英桃：《和平进程中的非洲妇女安全：以布隆迪和利比里亚为例》，《国际安全研究》2014年第3期；和建花，丁娟：《非洲妇女参政配额制实施状况的研究与思考》，《山东女子学院学报》2015年第6期；张象主编：《彩虹之邦新南非》，当代世界出版1998年版，该书中专门有一章对南非妇女运动的历史及妇女运动对反种族隔离制斗争的贡献作了比较详尽的阐述。
⑤Mary Smith,Baba of Karo:A Woman of the Muslim Hausa,Faber & Faber,1958; Denise Paulme,ed.,Femmes d'Afrique Noire,Mouton,1960，其英译版为Women of Tropical Africa,trans.by H.M.Wright,University of California Press,1963; H.J.Simons,African Women:Their Legal Status in South Africa,C.Hurst,1968; Suzanne Comhaire-Sylvain,Femmes de Kinshasa Hier et Aujourd'hui,Mouton,1968等。
⑥主要指覆盖东几内亚、塞拉利昂、利比亚，一直延伸到科特迪瓦西北部地区的大平原。
⑦Denis Paulme,Women of Tropical Africa,trans by H.M.Wright,University of California Press,1963.
⑧Nancy J.Hafkin &Edna G.Bay,eds.,Women in Africa:Studies in Social and Economic Change,Stanford University Press,1976.
⑨美国女历史学家艾丽斯·伯杰(Iris Berger)、出生英国后在纽约州立大学工作的人类学家詹姆斯·布雷恩(James L.Brain)、美国历史学教授乔治·布鲁克斯(George E.Brooks)、美国女历史学家玛格利特·珍·海(Margaret Jean Hay)、美国女政治学家芭芭拉·路易斯(Barbara C.Lewis)、美国史学家利思·穆林斯(Leith Mullings)、尼日利亚女历史学家卡梅内·奥孔涅(Kamene Okonjo)、美国女历史学家克莱儿·罗伯森(Claire Robertson)、美国黑人女历史学家菲洛米娜·基奥玛·斯特迪(Filomina Chioma Steady)、美国女历史学家玛格利特·斯特罗贝尔(Margaret Strobel)和朱迪思·范·艾伦(Judith Van Allen)。
⑩李银河：《女性主义》，山东人民出版社2005年版，第15—35页。
(11)Mama Amina,Women's Studies and Studies of Women in African During the 1990s,working paper series 5/96,Codesria,p.6.
(12)Joan W.Scott,"Gender:A Useful Category of Historical Analysis",The American Historical Review,Vol.91,No.5,1986,pp.1053-1075.
(13)张忠祥：《20世纪70年代以来非洲史学的新进展——以医疗史研究为个案》，《史学集刊》2015年第4期，第7页。
(14)张忠祥：《20世纪非洲史学的复兴》，《史学理论研究》2012年第4期，第33页。
(15)Jan Vansina,Oral Tradition,Chicago:Aldine,1965; David Henige,Oral Historiography,Longman,1980; Paul Irwin,Liptako Speaks:History from Oral Tradition in Africa,Princeton University Press,1980.
(16)侯建新：《西方妇女史研究述评》，《天津师大学报》1991年第5期，第53页。
(17)M.J.Daymond,Dorothy Driver,Sheila Meintjes,eds.,Women Writing Africa:The Southern Region,Vol.1,The Feminist Press at CUNY,2003; Esi Sutherland-Addy,Aminata Diaw,eds.,Women Writing Africa:West Africa and the Sahel,Vol.2,The Feminist Press at CUNY,2005,Amandina Lihamba,Fulata L.Moyo,Mugaybuso M.Mulokozi,Naomi L.Shitemi,eds.,Women Writing Africa:The Eastern Region,Vol.3,The Feminist Press at CUNY,2007; Fatima Sadiqi,Amira Nowaira,Azza El Holy,Moha Ennaji,eds.,Women Writing Africa:The Northern Region,Vol.4,The Feminist Press at CUNY,2009.
(18)Aili Mari Tripp,Isabel Casimiro,Joy Kwesiga,and Alice Mungwa,African Womens Movements:Transforming Political Landscapes,Cambridge University Press,2009,pp.35-36.
(19)Catherine Coquery-Vidrovitch,trans.by Beth Gillian Raps,African Women:A Modern History,West view Press,1997,pp.195-196.
(20)Hilary Callan and Shirley Ardener,eds.,The Incorporated Wife,Croom Helm,1984; Masemann,Vandra Lea,"The Hidden Curriculum of a West African Girls' Boarding School",Canadian Journal of African Studies,Vol.8,No.3,1974,pp.479-94; Nancy Hunt," Domesticity and Colonialism in Belgian Africa; Usumbura's Foyer Social,1946-1960." Signs,Vol.15,No.3,1990,pp.447-474; Nancy Rose Hunt,A Colonial Lexicon of Birth Ritual,Medicalization,and Mobility in the Congo,Duke University Press,1999.
(21)Claire Robertson,"Women's Education and Class Formation in Africa,1950-1980",In C.Robertson and I.Berger,eds.,Women and Class in Africa,Africana Publishing Company,1986,pp.92-113.
(22)Ifi Amadiume,Daughters of the Goddess,Daughters of Imperialism:African Women Struggle for Culture,Power and Democracy,Zed,2000; K.Ona Jirira,"Gender,Politics and Democracy:Kuvaka Patsva(Reconstructing)the Discourse",Safere,Vol.1,No.2,1995,pp.1-29.
(23)LaRay Denzer,"Domestic Science Training in Colonial Yorubaland,Nigeria",In Karen Tranberg Hansen,ed.,African Encounters with Domesticity,Rutgers University Press,1992,pp.116-139.
(24)Josephine Ahikire,"African feminism in context:Reflections on the legitimation battles,victories and reversals",Feminist Africa,Issue 19,2014,pp.7-19.
(25)所谓蜗牛式女权主义是Akachi Adimora-ezeigbo提出来的理论，提倡尼日利亚妇女在艰难的父权社会中对付男性时要像蜗牛一样谨慎而缓慢行动。
(26)Stiwanism的英文全称是Social Transformation in Africa Including Women，即非洲社会变革要包含妇女之意。该理论乃Omolara Ogundipe-Leslie所创。
(27)Nego-Feminism中的Nego代表negotiation或no ego之意，指女权主义者为了得到自由必须进行商谈或一定的妥协。
(28)Naomi Nkealah,"(West)African Feminisms and Their Challenges",Journal of Literary Studies,Vol.32，No.2,2016,pp.61-74.
(29)初期的女权主义运动家有譬如被称为“非洲的维多利亚女权主义者”的塞拉利昂妇女权利活动家阿德莱德·凯斯利-海福德(Adelaide Casely-Hayford)，为泛非主义和女权主义贡献良多；夏洛特·麦特斯特(Charlotte Maxeke)于1918年在南非成立了班图妇女联盟，而胡达·撒拉威(Huda Sharaawi)在1923年成立埃及女权主义联盟等。
(30)在反抗殖民主义和父权制斗争中著名的代表性人物就有肯尼亚活动家、政治家和作家弗吉尼亚·万布伊·奥蒂埃诺(Virginia Wambui Otieno)，南非反种族隔离斗士莉莲·恩戈伊(Lillian Ngoyi)，南非非国大元老沃尔特·西苏鲁(Walter Sisulu)的遗孀爱尔伯蒂娜·西苏鲁(Albertina Sisulu)，尼日利亚妇女权利和社会活动家玛格丽特·艾柯坡(Margaret Ekpo)等。
(31)Ester Boserup,Women’s Role in Economic Development,St.Martin's Press,1971.
(32)Nancy Rose Hunt,"Placing African women's History and Locating Gender",Social History,Vol.14,No.3,1989,p.360.
(33)Iris Berger,"African Women's History:Themes and Perspectives",Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History,Vol.4,No.1,2003,p.5.
(34)Joseph Miller,"Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective",Journal of African History,Vol.16,No.2,1975,pp.201-216.
(35)Bolanle Awe,"The Lyalode in the Traditional Yoruba Political System",In Alice Schlegel,ed.,Sexual Stratification:A Cross-Cultural View,Columbia University Press,1977,pp.144-159.博兰勒其他作品还有:"Nigerian women and development in retrospect",In Jane I.Parpart,eds.,Women and Development in Africa:Comparative Perspective,University Press of America,1989,pp.313-333; "Writing Women into History:The Nigerian Experience",In Karen Offen,Ruth Roach Pierson,Jane Rendall,eds.,Writing Womens History,Palgrave Macmillan UK,1991; "The Role of Nigerian Women in Management in the 90s",Management in Nigeria,Vol.26,No.6,1990; Nigerian Women in Historical Perspective,Sankore Publishers,1992。
(36)Agnes Akosua Aidoo,"Asante Queen Mothers in Government and Politics in the Nineteenth Century",In Filomena Steady,ed.,The Black Woman Cross-Culturally,Schenckman,1981,pp.65-77.
(37)LaRay Denzer,"Towards a Study of the History of West African Women's Participation in Nationalist Politics:The Early Phase,1935-1960",Africana Research Bulletin,Vol.6,No.4,1976,pp.65-85; LaRay Denzer,"Constance A.Cummings-John:Her Early Political Career in Freetown",Tarikh,Vol.7,No.1,1981,pp.20-32; LaRay Denzer,"Pan-African Influences on Cummings-John's Career",In Robert Hill,ed.,Pan African Biography,Crossroads Press,1987; Rina Okonkwo,"Adelaide Casely Hayford Cultural Nationalist and Feminist",Phylon(1960-),Vol.42,No.1,1981,pp.41-51; Adelaide Cromwell Gulliver,Victorian Feminist:Adelaide Smith Casely-Hayford,Cass,1986.
(38)Susan Geiger,"Umoja wa Wanawake wa Tanzania and the Needs of the Rural Poor",African Studies Review,Vol.25,No.2/3,1982,pp.45-65.
(39)Cheryl Johnson,"Grass Roots Organizing:Women in Anti-colonial Activity in Southwestern Nigeria",African Studies Review,Vol.25,No.2/3,1982,pp.137-157; Nina Mba,Nigerian Women Mobilized:Womens Political Activity in Southern Nigeria,1900-1965,University of California /Institute of International Studies,1982; Judith Van Allen,"Sitting on a Man:Colonialism and the Lost Political Institutions of Ibo Women",Canadian Journal of African Studies,Vol.6,No.2,Special Issue:The Roles of African Women:Past,Present and Future,1972,pp.165-181.
(40)George Brooks,"The Signares of Saint-Louis and Goree:Women Entrepreneurs in Eighteenth-Century Senegal",In Nancy J.Hafkin and Edna G.Bay eds.,Women in Africa:Studies in Social and Economic Change 1976,Stanford University Press,pp.19-44; Cheryl Johnson,"Madam Alimotu Pelewura and the Lagos Market Women",Tarikh,Vol.7,No.1,1981,pp.1-10.
(41)Belinda Bozzoli,"Marxism,Feminism and South African Studies",Journal of Southern African Studies,Vol.9,No.2,1983,pp.139-171.
(42)Claire Robertson,"Developing Economic Awareness:Changing Perspectives in Studies of African Women,1976-1985",Feminist Studies,Vol.13,No.1,1987,p.117.
(43)Iris Berger,"Rebels or Status-Seekers:Women as Spirit Mediums in East Africa",In Nancy J.Hafkin and Edna G.Bay eds.,Women in Africa:Studies in Social and Economic Change 1976,Stanford University Press,pp.157-181; Iris Berger,"Sources of Class Consciousness:South African Women in Recent Labor Struggles",In Robertson Claire and Iris Berger,eds.,Women and Class in Africa,Africana Publishing Company,1986,pp.216-236.
(44)伯杰有关非洲妇女史的专著主要有：Iris Berger,Claire Robertson,eds.,Women and Class in Africa,Holmes &Meier Pub,1988; Iris Berger,Threads of Solidarity:Women in South African Industry,1900-1980,Indiana University Press,1992; Iris Berger,E.Frances White,Women in Sub-Saharan Africa:Restoring Women to History,Indiana University Press,1999; Iris Berger,Women in Twentieth Century Africa,Cambridge University Press,2016.
(45)Margaret Jean Hay,"Queens,Prostitutes and Peasants:Historical Perspectives on African Women,1971-1986",Canadian Journal of African Studies,Vol.22,No.3,Special Issue:Current Research on African Women,1988,p.434.
(46)Luise White,"A Colonial State and an African Petty Bourgeoisie:Prostitution,Property and Class Struggle in Nairobi,1936-1940",In Fred Cooper,ed,Struggle for the City,Sage,1983,pp.167-194.
(47)Luise White,"Prostitution,Identity,and Class Consciousness in Nairobi During World War Ⅱ",Signs:Journal of Women in Culture and Society,Vol.11,No.2,1986,pp.255-273，她主要研究非洲肯尼亚、赞比亚和津巴布韦地区；Charles Van Onselen,"Prostitutes and Proletarians,1886-1914",In Van Onselen,ed.,Studies in the Social and Economic History of the Witwatersrand,Vol.1,Longman,1982.
(48)Janet M Bujra,"Women Entrepreneurs of Early Colonial Nairobi",Canadian Journal of African Studies,Vol.7,No.2,1975,pp.213-214; "Production,Property,Prostitution.Sexual Politics in Atu",Cahiers d'etudes africaines,Vol.17,No.65,1977,pp 13-39; Janet MacGaffey,"How to Survive and Get Rich Amidst Devastation:The Second Economy in Zaire",African Affairs,Vol.82,No 328,1983,pp.351-366.
(49)Sharon Stichter,Women in the Labor Force in Kenya,1895-1964,Discussion Paper 258,Nairobi:Institute for Development Studies,University of Nairobi,September,1977.
(50)Claire C.Robertson &Martin A.Klein,eds.,Women and Slavery in Africa,University of Wisconsin Press,1983.
(51)Nancy A.Hewitt,"Beyond the Search for Sisterhood:American Women's History in the 1980s,Social History,Vol.10,No.3,1985,pp.299-321.
(52)Marcia Wright,"Bwanikwa:Consciousness and Protest Among Slave Women in Central Africa,1886-1911",In Claire C.Robertson &Martin A.Klein,eds.,Women and Slavery in Africa,1983,pp.246-267; Marcia Wright,Women in Peril:Life Stories of Four Captives,Neczam,1984.
(53)Cynthia Brantely,"Mekatalili and the Role of Women in Giriama Resistance",In Donald Crummey,ed.,Banditry,Rebellion and Social Protest in Africa,James Currey,1986,pp.333-350.
(54)Randall Packard,White Plague,Black Labor:Tuberculosis and the Political Economy of Health and Disease in South Africa,University of California Press,1989; Sheryl McCurdy,"Urban Threats:Manyema Women,Low Fertility and Venereal Diseases in British Colonial Tanganyika,1926-19 6 "In Dorothy Hodgson and Sheryl McCurdy,eds.,'Wicked' Women and the Reconfiguration of Gender in Africa,Heinemann,2001; Francine Van den Borne,Trying to Survive in Times of Poverty and AIDS:Women and Multiple Partner Sex in Malawi,Het Spinhuis,2005; Margaret A Rugadya,Hema Swaminathan,Cherryl Walker,eds.,Womens Property Rights,HIV and AIDS &Domestic Violence:Research Findings from Two Districts in South Africa and Uganda,Human Sciences Research Council,2009; Mark Hunter,Love in the Time of AIDS:Inequality,Gender,and Rights in South Africa,Indiana University Press,2010; Sanyu A.Mojola,Love,Money,and HIV:Becoming a Modern African Woman in the Age of AIDS,University of California Press,2014.
(55)Musisi Nakanyike,"Gender and Sexuality in African History:A Personal Reflection",Journal of African History,Vol.55,No.3,2014,pp.304-305.
(56)Dunbar Moodie,Vivien Ndatshe and British Sibuye,"Migrancy and male sexuality on the South African gold mines",Journal of Southern African Studies,Vol.14,No.2; Dunbar Moodie,Going for Gold:Men,Mines and Migration,University of California Press,1994;
(57)Lisa Lindsay & Stephen Miescher,eds.,Men and Masculinities in Modern Africa,Heinemann,2003; Lisa Lindsay,Working with Gender:Wage Labor and Social Change in Southwestern Nigeria,Heinemann,2003; Robert Morrell,ed.,Changing Men in Southern Africa,Zed Books,2001.
(58)Akosua Adomako Ampofo,Josephine Beoku-Betts Wairimu Ngaruiya Njambi & Mary Osirim,"Women's and Gender Studies in English-speaking sub-Saharan Africa",Gender and Society,Vol.18,No.6,2004,p.695; Lloyda Fanusie," Sexualtiy and Women in African Culture",In Mercy A.Oduyoye,Musimbi R.A.Kanyoro,eds.,The Will to Arise:Women,Tradition,and the Church in Africa,Wipf and Stock publishers,1992,pp 135-154; Anne Nachisale Musopole,"Sexualtiy and Religion in a Matriarchal Society",In Mercy A.Oduyoye,Musimbi R.A.Kanyoro,eds.,The Will to Arise:Women,Tradition,and the Church in Africa,Wipf and Stock Publishers,1992,pp.195-205; Jennifer Cole,Lynn M.Thomas,eds.,Love in Africa,University of Chicago Press,2009.
(59)Musisi Nakanyike,"Gender and Sexuality in African History:A personal Reflection",The Journal of African History,Vol.55,No.3,2014,p.306.
(60)Rudo B.Gaidzanwa,"Gender Analysis in the Field of Education:A Zimbabwean Example",In Ayesha Imam,Amina Mama,and Fatou Sow,eds.,Engendering African Social Sciences,Senegal:CODESRIA Book Series,1997.
(61)M.N.Bloch,J.A.Beoku-Betta,B.R Tabachnick,eds,Women and Education in Sub-Saharan Africa:Power,Opportunities,and Constraints,Lynne Rienner Publishers,1998; Lumumba N'Dri T.Assie,Women and Higher Education in Africa:Reconceptualizing Gender-based Human Capabilities and Upgrading Human Rights to Knowledge,Ceparred,2007; Mutindi Mumbua Kiluva-Ndunda,Women's Agency and Educational Policy:The Experiences of the Women of Kilome,Kenya,State University of New York Press,2000; Benedicata Egbo,Gender,Literacy and Life Chances in Sub-Saharan Africa,Cromwell Press Ltd,2000; Joy Kwesiga,Womens Access to Higher Education in Africa:Uganda's Experience,Fountain Publication,2002; Meghan Healy-Clancy,A World of Their Own:A History of South African Women’s Education,University of Virginia Press,2014.
(62)N'Dri Assie-Lumumba,"Educating Africa's Girls and Women:A Conceptual and Historical Analysis of Gender Inequality",In Ayesha Imam,Amina Mama,and Fatou Sow,eds.,Engendering African Social Sciences,Senegal:CODESRIA Book Series,1997; Florence E.Etta,"Gender Issues in Contemporary African Education",Africa Development,Vol.19,No.4,1994,pp.57-84; Rudo B.Gaidzanwa,"Gender Analysis in the Field of Education:A Zimbabwean Example",In Ayesha Imam,Amina Mama,and Fatou Sow,Dakar,eds,Engendering African Social Sciences,Senegal:CODESRIA Book Series,1997; Rosalia Katapa &Magdalena Ngaiza,"Debt in Tanzania:Are Women Silent or Concerned?" In Visions of gender theories and social development in Africa:Harnessing Knowledge for social justice and equality,Senegal:AAWORD Book Series,2001; Joy Kwesiga,Womens Access to Higher Education in Africa:Ugandas Experience,Uganda:Fountain,2002; Marjorie Mbilinyi,"Searching for Utopia:The Politics of Gender and Education in Tanzania",In Marianne Bloch,Josephine A.Beoku Betts,and B.Robert Tabachnick,eds.,Women and Education in sub-Saharan Africa:Power,Opportunities,and Constraints,Boulder,CO:Lynne Rienner,1998; Ruth N.Otunga,"School Participation by Gender:Implications for Occupational Activities in Kenya",Africa Development,Vol.22,No.1,1997,pp.39-64.
(63)Molara Ogundipe-Leslie,Re-creating Ourselves:African Women &Critical Transformations,Africa World Press,1994; Grietjie Verhoef,"The Role of Women in.the South African Economy",South African Journal of Economics,Vol.64,No.3,1996; Margaret C.Snyder,Women in African Economies:From Burning Sun to Boardroom,Fountain Publishers,2000; Daniela Casale,"What Has the Feminisation of the Labour Market 'Bought' Women in South Africa? Trends in Labour Force Participation,Employment and Earnings,1995-2001 ",Journal of Interdisciplinary Economics,Vol.15,No.3/4,2004; Michael Kevane,Women and Development in Africa:How Gender Works,Lynne Rienner Publication,2004; Gracia C.Clark,African Market Women:Seven Life Stories from Ghana,Indiana University Press,2010; M.Turshen,African Women:A Political Economy,Palgrave Macmillan,2010.
(64)Kate Meagher,"Crisis,In formalization and the Urban Informal Sector in Sub-Saharan Africa",Development and Change,Vol.26,No 2,1995; Jane Seruwagi Nalunga,Women Employees in the Informal Sector,Kampala,Uganda,Organization for Social Science Research in Eastern and Southern Africa,1998; Aba Amissah Quainoo,Financial Services for Women Entrepreneurs in the Informal Sector of Ghana,World Bank,Africa Region,1999; Rodreck Mupedziswa,Perpetua Gumbo,Women Informal Traders in Harare and the Struggle for Survival in an Environment of Economic Reforms:Research Report No 117,Nordic Africa Institute,2000; OA Akinboade,"A Review of Women,Poverty and Informal Trade Issues in East and Southern Africa",International Social Science Journal,Vol.57,No 184,2005; Gayatri Singh,"Paradoxical Payoffs:Migrant Women,Informal Sector Work,and HIV/AIDS in South Africa,New Solutions:A Journal of Environmental and Occupational Health Policy,Vol.17,No.1,2007; Mary Njeri Kinyanjui,Women and the Informal Economy in Urban Africa:From the Margins to the Centre,Zed Books,2014.
(65)Akosua Darkwah,"Trading Goes Global:Market Women in an Era of Globalization",Asian Women,Vol.15,2002,pp.31-49; Yassine Fall,"Globalization,Its Institutions and African Women's Resistance",In Yassine Fall,ed.,Africa:Gender,Globalization and Resistance",Senegal:AAWORD Book Series,1999; Kaendi Munguti,Edith Kabui and Mabel Isoilo,"The Implications of Economic Reforms on Gender Relations:The Case of Poor Households in Kisumu Slums" In Aicha Tamboura Diawara,ed,Gender,Economic Integration,Governance and Methods of Contraceptives,Senegal:AAWORD Book Series,2002 等。
(66)Sylvain H.Boko,Mina Baliamoune-Lutz,and Sitawa R.Kimuna,eds,Women in African Development:The Challenge of Globalization and Liberalization in the 21st Century,Africa World Press,2005.
(67)专著方面主要有Ifi Amadiume,Male Daughters,Female Husbands:Gender and Sex in an African Society,Zed Books,1987; Gwendolyn Mikell,African Feminism:The Politics of Survival in Sub-Saharan Africa,University of Pennsylvania Press,1997; Oyewumi,Oyeronke,The Invention of Woman:Making an African Sense of Western Gender Discourses,University of Minnesota Press,1997; Dorothy L.Hodgson,Sheryl McCurdy,eds,"Wicked" Women and the Reconfiguration of Gender in Africa,Heinemann,2001; Goetz Anne Marie and Hassim Shireen,eds.,No Shortcuts to Power:African Women in Politics and Policy Making,Zed Books,2003; Oyeronke Oyewumi,African Women and Feminism:Reflecting on the Politics of Sisterhood,Africa World Press,2004; Gretchen Bauer and Hannah E.Britton,eds,Women in African Parliaments,Lynne Rienner Pub,2006; Catherine M.Cole,Takyiwaa Manuh,Stephan F.Miescher,eds,Africa After Gebder? Indiana University Press,2007; Kathleen M.Fallon,Democracy and the Rise of Women's Movements in Sub-Saharan Africa,Johns Hopkins University Press,2008; AM Tripp,I Casimiro,J Kwesiga,A Mungwa,African Women's Movements:Transforming Political Landscapes,Cambridge University Press,2009; Aili Mari Tripp,Women and Power in Postconflict Africa,Cambridge University Press,2015; Gretchen Bauer,Josephine Dawuni,eds,Gender and the Judiciary in Africa:From Obscurity to Parity? Rout ledge,2015; Balghis Badri,Aili Mari Tripp,eds.,Women's Activism in Africa,Zed Books,2017；该领域还有许多国别研究以及期刊论文就不一一列举。
(68)Aili Mari Tripp,"Women's Movements,Customary Laws and Land Rights in Africa:The Case of Uganda",African Studies Quarterly,Vol.7,No.4,2004,pp.1-19.
(69)Grethen Bauer and H.E.Britton,"Women in African Parliaments:A Continental Shift",In G.Bauer and H,E.Britton,eds.,Womenin African Parliaments,Boulder Co:Lynne Rienner,2006,pp.1-44; A.Huggins and S.K.Randell,"Gender Equality in Education in Rwanda:What Is Happening to Our Girls?",Paper presented at the South African Association of Women Graduate Conference on" Drop-outs from School and Tertiary Studies:What is Happening to Our Girls?" Cape town,May,2007.
(70)Sarah Bush,"International Politics and the Spread of Quotas for Women in Legislatures",International Organization,Vol.65,No.1,2011,pp.103-37; Staffan Lindberg,"Women's Empowerment and Democratization",Studies in Comparative International Development,Vol.39,No.1,2004,pp.28-53; Mi Yung Yoon,"Explaining Women's Legislative Representation in Sub-Saharan Africa,Legislative Studies Quarterly,Vol.29,No.3,2004,pp.447-68; Aili Mari Tripp,"Regional Networking as Transnational Feminism:African Experiences",Feminist Africa,Issue 4,2005,pp.46-63; F.Steady,Women and Collective Action in Africa:Development,Democratization,and Empowerment,with Special Focus on Sierra Leone,Palgrave Macmillan,2005.
(71)Barbara Callaway and Lucy Creevey,The Heritage of Islam:Women,Religion and Politics in West Africa,Boulder:Lynne-Rienner,1994; Ifi Amadiume,Re-Inventing Africa:Matriarchy,Religion and Culture,Zed Books,1997; Sondra Hale,Gender Politics in Sudan:Islamism,Socialism,and the State,Westview Press,1997; Barbara L.Muthoni Wanyeki,ed.,Women and Land in Africa—Culture,Religion and Realizing Women's Rights,Zed Books,2003; Ousseina D.Alidou,Engaging Modernity:Muslim Women and the Politics of Agency in Postcolonial Niger,University of Wisconsin Press,2005; Tumani Mutasa Nyajeka,The Unwritten Text:The Indigenous African Christian Women's Movement in Zimbabwe,Africa University Press,2006; Mary Wren Bivins,Telling Stories,Making Histories:Women,Words,and Islam in Nineteenth-century Hausaland and the Sokoto Caliphate,Heinemann,2007; Neil Macmaster,Burning the Veil:The Algerian War and the ‘Emancipation' of Muslim Women,1954-1962,Manchester University Press,2009; Margot Badran,Gender and Islam in Africa:Rights,Sexuality,and Law,Stanford University Press,2011; Pade Badru,Brigid M.Sackey,eds.,Islam in Africa South of the Sahara:Essays in Gender Relations and Political Reform,Scarecrow Press,2013; Mercy Amba Oduyoye,Beads &Strands:Reflections of an African Woman on Christianity in Africa,Orbis Books,2013.
(72)Ambe J.Njoh,Fenda A.Akiwuni,"The Impact of Religion on Women Empowerment as a Millennium Development Goal in Africa",Social Indicators Research,Vol.107,No.1,2012,p.2.从地理位置上看，自塞拉利昂向西，沿利比里亚、科特迪瓦、布基纳法索、贝宁、尼日利亚、乍得、南苏丹、埃塞俄比亚、厄立特里亚边界划线，这条线以北为穆斯林为主，以南的国家基督徒占多数(除索马里和吉布提以外)。而利比里亚、科特迪瓦、多哥、贝宁、喀麦隆、中非、马达加斯加以非洲传统宗教为主。
(73)Jacqueline Adhiambo-oduol,Transforming Tradition as a Vehicle for Women's Empowerment:A Critical Dimension for Poverty Eradication,Prepared under Topic 2:Empowerment of women as a transformative strategy for poverty eradication,for the United Nations Division for the Advancement of Women(DAW)Expert Group Meeting on ‘Empowerment of Women throughout the Life Cycle as a Transformative Strategy for Poverty Eradication',26-29 November 2001,New Delhi,India.
(74)A.J.Njoh,Tradition,Culture and Development in Africa:Historical Lessons for Modern Development Planning,Ashgate,2006; R.Uchem,"Overcoming Women's Subordination in the Igbo African Culture and in the Catholic Church",Critical Half:Annual Journal of Women for Women International,Vol.1,No.1,2003,pp.27-31; Ifi Amadiume,Re-Inventing Africa:Matriarchy,Religion and Culture,Zed Books,1997.
(75)Niara Sudarkasa,"The Status of Women in Indigenous African Societies",Feminist Studies,Vol.12,No 1,1986,pp.91-103.
(76)Ambe J.Njoh,Fenda A.Akiwuni,"The Impact of Religion on Women Empowerment as a Millennium Development Goal in Africa,Social Indicators Research,Vol.107,No.1,2012,pp.5-6.
(77)Rose Uchem,"Overcoming Women's Subordination in the Igbo African Culture and in the Catholic Church,Critical Half:Annual Journal of Women for Women International,Vol.1,No.1,2003,p.26.
(78)Iris Berger,"Feminism,Patriarchy,and African Women's History",Journal of Women's History,Vol.20,No.2,2008,p.131.
(79)Iris Berger,"Feminism,Patriarchy,and African Women's History",p.131.
(80)Adu A Boahen,African Perspectives on Colonialism,The Johns Hopkins University Press,1987; Gail P.Kelly &Carolyn M.Elliott,eds,Women's Education in the Third World:Comparative Perspectives,State University of New York Press,1982; Victor C.Uchendu,Education and Politics in Tropical Africa,Transaction Publishers,1979.
(81)Claire Robertson,"In Pursuit of Life Histories:An Analysis of Bias",Frontiers A Journal of Women Studies,Vol.7,No.2,1983,pp.63-69.
(82)例如研究黑人女作家、女权主义理论、法属文学、性别和人权的尼日利亚女学者奥维奥玛·纳梅卡(Obioma Nnaemeka)；尼日利亚女权主义学者阿明娜·马马(Amina Mama)，南非作家、政治活动家并获得1991年诺贝尔文学奖的内丁·戈迪默(Nadine Gordimer)、南非著名的穆斯林妇女权利活动家、穆斯林女权主义者和记者沙米玛·谢赫(Shamima Shaikh)；斯瓦士兰激进女权主义者、社会学家、作家、教育家帕特里夏·麦克法登(Patriacia Mcfadden)等。
(83)其主要代表作有：Squatters and the Roots of Mau Mau:1905-63,Ohio University Press,1987; "Women and Politics of Protest:Mau Mau",In Sharon Macdonald,Images of Women in Peace and War,MacMillan,1987; "Mission Impact on Women in Colonial Kenya"In Fiona Bowie,Deborah Kirkwood,Shirley Ardener,eds,Women and Missions:Past and Present:Anthropological and Historical Perceptions,Berg Publishers,1993; "Women's Movement and Visions in Kenya:What Lessons from the Past?",In Neuma Aguiar,ed.,DAWN Alternatives:Women's Visions and Movements,Vol.Ⅱ,Brazil Editora Roa dos Tempos LTDA,1991; "Women and the Environment in History" in Shanyisa R.Khasiani,ed.,Groundwork:African Women as Environmental Managers,ACTS Press,Nairobi,1992; "Women,Patriarchy and Production in Kenya",Fems Microbiology Reviews,Vol.14,No.1,1997; African Womanhood in Colonial Kenya,1900-1950,James Currey Publishers; Ohio University Press; East African Educational Publications,2005。
(84)其主要代表作有："'Worries of the heart':widowed mothers,daughters and masculinities in Maragoli,Western Kenya,1940-60",The Journal of African History,Vol.40,No.1,1999,pp.67-86; "Dear Dolly's' Advice:Representations of Youth,Courtship,and Sexualities in Africa,1960-1980,The International Journal of African Historical Studies,Vol.33,No.1,2000,pp 1-23; Politics of the Womb:Women,Reproduction,and the State in Kenya,University of Chicago Press,2007。
(85)Ruth Finnegan,Oral Literature in Africa,Open Book Publishers,2012,p.103.
(86)Mary Smith,Baba of Karo:A Woman of the Moslem Hausa,Faber &Faber,1958.
(87)Margaret Strobel,"Women in Religion and Secular Ideology",In Margaret Jean Hay &Sharon Stichter,eds.,African Women South of the Sahara,Longman,1995.
(88)Simone Schwarz-Bart,Andre Schwarz-Bart,Rose-Myriam Rejouis,Val Vinokurov,Stephanie K Daval,In Praise of Blach Women,Volume 1:Ancient African Queens,University of Wisconsin Press,2001,In Praise of Black Women,Volume 2:Heroines of the Slavery Era,University of Wisconsin Press,2002; In Praise of Blach Women,Volume 3:Modern African Women,University of Wisconsin Press,2003.
(89)Lauretta Ngcobo,ed.,Prodigal Daughters:Stories of South African Women in Exile,University of KwaZulu-Natal Press,2012.
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