译威廉.麦克尼尔《世界史》（双语对照）_历史网-中国历史之家、历史上的今天、历史朝代顺序表、历史人物故事、看历史、新都网、历史春秋网

    麦克尼尔是我非常喜欢和推崇的一位美国历史学家。上世纪60年代,他的 The Rise of the West:A History of the Human Community（《西方的兴起——人类共同体史》）曾使他在西方史学界声名赫赫。北京大学的钱乘旦老师和社科院的郭方老师都为这本书写过书评。今年4月，麦克尼尔的另一部代表作Plagues and Peoples（《瘟疫与人》）已由南开大学余新忠老师和辽宁师范大学毕会成老师共同翻译出版。前几天，我在学校图书馆英文影印书区偶然发现了由北京大学出版社出版的麦克尼尔的 A World History （《世界史》），实感不尽欣喜。大略翻看之后，觉得本书篇幅精巧，仅500余页；体系简明，分四个部分，每部分之下设若干章，依时间顺序叙述史实，并充分体现出整体史思想；作为美国部分高校的世界史教科书，它的内容不算肤浅，但又远称不上晦涩难明。因此，这本书非常适合像我这样的世界史初学者进行翻译。我决心在春节之间完成本书的翻译，以从中熟悉世界史常用词汇和书写模式，并逐渐将自己的史学思维真正同“世界”（尤其是“西方”）接轨。此外，我还期望着通过翻译外国学者史著这种方式提高自己的专业英语水平，从而在未来的报考世界古代中纪史方向研究生的考试中顺利过关。所以，虽然这个过程耗时费力，非常辛苦，但对于我，它是有意义的。但目前，作为一名普通本科大二学生的我，不仅英文水平非常低，就连史学积累也很薄弱，所以翻译出来的成果相当拙劣，有许多不流畅、不准确之处（我觉得有好多不通之处）。无奈身边没有同学在做相似的事，也不好每天缠着老师去问，故而在此将我的翻译与麦克尼尔的原文一并发布于网络，目的是期望有能之士在两相对照之后能给予我帮助，为我指出错漏并提供一些建议。不胜感激。
    读本：
    William H.McNeil,A World History,fourth edition，北京大学出版社，2008年9月影印版序言
    人类的社会为数众多，以不同的生活方式彼此区别，这自原始人类时代起就存在，并贯穿整个人类历史。文明是一些规模较大的社会，它在数百甚或数千英里的范围内，将数以千计的人置于一种松散而又具有凝聚力的生活方式之中。当用个体的生命去衡量的时候，其时间跨度显得特别长。因为既庞大又“长寿”，所以文明必须是最必要的少数几个。的确，自人类社会初次达到文明的状态与标准之时起，仅有四种不同的主要文明传统曾经共存于旧世界；在新世界，美洲印第安土著的发展一直都是薄弱和迟缓的，仅形成过三种不同的文明。
    这些事实反映了作为一个整体的人类历史之概观。可以确定，在地球上广阔地分散着的各个板块里，同时发生着许多事情，这要求我们把注意力聚焦于某些事实而忽略另外一些。这同样适用于关于人类过去思想意识中更为细致部分的研究。例如，在我们一般意义上的国家历史中，关于每个城镇和乡村的独有特性就被无情的忽略掉了。在一幅绘好的图画里有许多细节，而每一寸都有优点，也有被疏忽的缺陷。太多的资料会模糊整体；太少又会夺走历史的真实性并掩盖人类曾经历过的无尽惊喜。19世纪的历史学家们所建立的国家史框架仍主导着公众的思想；20世纪的美国教科书编写者们已达成了一些关于西方文明史的大略一致的意见。但对于世界史，一个为大家所共同接受的衡量标准还没有出现。忽略什么而关注什么，因为争论与分歧的存在，仍是非常复杂的问题。
    由于这些分歧的存在，似乎值得花时间去写一些关于人类的过去的简单说明。我的《西方的兴起》（芝加哥，1963）获得了成功，它似乎让我有理由相信：一本部头小一点儿的书，可以使我个人对人类全部历史的看法更容易传达给学生和一般的读者——无论这些看法怎样不完善，却还是连贯和有见地的，可以被人们理解、记忆，然后去品味。
    我的总的观点很简单：在许多特定的时代，当人们成功的创造了一个或多个非常有吸引力的且力量强大的文明中心，世界上诸文化之间的平衡关系就很容易被打破。那时，文明中心的近邻和近邻的近邻会被诱导或被强迫改变它们自己的传统生活方式，有时是因为全盘地借鉴文明中心的技术或观念，但更多的是因为要调整或改变一些东西以顺利地适应独特的背景。
    主要文明中心的接连不断的变动关系到整个世界的变革。因此，研究最初的文明中心或者中心之间根本的变动，使展望世界历史新时代成为可能。此外，我们也应该仔细思考地球上其他民族是如何对待或反抗它们所知道的或经历过的（通常是间接或辗转的经历）发生于主要文明中心的革新的。
    总的来说，地理环境和不同文明之间交流方式的差异变得极其重要。考古学、科学技术和艺术史提供的一些重要线索表明，古代遗留下来的一些文字记录有时是伪造的。
    本书写成于1964年夏，于1965年夏校订。第2版的校订是在1970年夏，大大增加了最后一部分的内容。1978年的第三版有一些相对较小的变化，因为加入了一些新的考古学发现和其他资料。卡内基公司帮助提供了本书筹备与作为世界史实验课程指定读物而再版的资金。我也要把特别的感激归给芝加哥大学的约翰A.威尔逊教授，他阅读了第一部分的内容。还有加利福尼亚大学圣巴巴拉分校的伊曼纽尔.徐教授，他检查了关于远东的文章。我希望把被发现的所有错误与不恰当之处都剔除掉。在第2版筹备期间，我得到了来自克莱星顿大学的艾伦.M.斯科雷奇教授、明尼苏达州立大学的戴维.琼斯教授和哈佛大学的比尔.B.布莱菲尔德教授的巨大帮助。他们交给我一份建立在他们经验基础之上的，关于他们使用本书第1版于世界史实验课程的情况的详尽报告。索尔.琼斯，约翰.霍德和休.斯柯金对第3版提出了一些相似的意见；斯柯金还负责了对本书推荐阅读文献的校订。
    芝加哥，伊利诺州                                                                                       威廉.H.麦克尼尔
    1978年7月
    Preface
    Human societies,distingguished from one another by differing styles of life,are very numerous,and   have existed fro-m pre- and proto-human times throughout mandkind's history.Civilizations are unusually massive societies,weaving the lives of milliona of persons into a loose yet coherent life style across hundreds or even thousands of miles and for periods of time that are very long when measured by the span of an individual human life. Being both massive and long-lived,civilizations must perforce also be few.Indeed,from the time when human societies first attained civilized complexity and size,no more than four different major civilized traditions ever co-existed in the Old World;and in the New,where Amerindian development remained always weak and retarded,no more than three distinct civilizations   ever emerged.
    These facts allow an overview of mankind as a whole.To be sure,the effort to hold simultaneously in mind what was happening in widely separated parts of the earth requires us to focus attention on certain aspects of reality and to pass others by.The same is true of the study of more detailed segments of the human past-think, for instance,of the local peculiarities of each town and village that are so ruthlessly neglected in our standard national histories! As in cartography,each scale has advantages and shortcomings,and an appropriate amount of detail.Too much information will obscure the whole;too little will deprive history of its verisimililitude and disguise the open-ended surprisingness of human experience.Historians of the nineteenth century erected a frame for national histories that continues to com-mand general assent;and in the twentieth century,American textbook writers arrived at a rough consensus concerning the history of something called West Civilization.But for world history,an agreed criterion has not yet appeared.What to omit and what to pay attention to remain very much matters for debate and disagreement.
    Because of these disagreements,it seemed worthwhile to write this brief account of mankind's past.The success of m-y book The Rise of the West(Chicago,1963)made it plausible to believe that a shorter work would make my personal vision of the whole history of mankind more accessible to students and to general readers—a vision which,however
    imperfect, still has the virtue of being cohesive and intelligible, something that can be grasped and remembered and reflected upon afterwards.
    The organizing idea is simple:in any given age the world balance among cultures was liable to disturbance emanating from one or more centers where men succeeded in creating an unusually attractive or power ful civilization.Neighbors and neighbors' neighbors were then tempted or compelled to change their own traditional ways of life,sometimes by o-utright borrowing of techniques or ideas,but more often by adjusting and changing things to suit the local scene more smoothly.
    In successive ages the major center of such disturbance to the world altered. It therefore becomes possible to survey the epochs of world history by studying first the center or centers of primary disturbance,and then considering how    the other peoples of the earth reacted to or against what they knew or experienced (often at second or third hand) of the innovations that had occurred in the main centers of cultural creativity.
    In such a perspective,geographical settings and lines of communication between different civilizations became criticall-y important . Archaeology , technology , and art history provide important clues to ancient relationships which the surviving literary record sometimes disguises.
    This book was written during the summer of 1964 and revised in the summer of 1965;the text was revised in the sum-mer of 1970 for a second edition,enlarging the final part substantially.A few relatively minor changes to take account of new archaeological discoveries and other data were incorporated into the third edition in 1978.The Carnegie Corporation helped to finance the book's preparation and the reproduction of a set of readings for an experimental course in world history.I owe special thanks also to Professor John A.Wilson of the University of Chicago,who read part I , and to Professor Immanuel Hsu of the University of California at Santa Barbara,who checked the passages dealing with the Far East.Both detected errors and infelicities which I hope have been removed. In the preparation o-f the second edition I was helpd greatly by Allan M.Schleich of Creighton University,Professor David Jones of the University of
    Minnesota,and Professor Bill B.Brayfield of the University of Hartford,who gave me detailed reports based on their e-xperiences . sor Jones , John Hord , and performed a similar service for the third edition; Hugh Scogin also took responsibility for revising the Biliographical Essats.

    Chicago,Illinoos                                                                     W.H.M.
    June   1978
    第一部分   世界主要古老文明的形成及概况，公元前500年之前
    概览
     人类历史上第一件划时代的大事是食物生产的发展。它使人口大规模增殖成为可能，并为文明的形成准备了基础。采集与狩猎是在何时、何地并如何演变为种植农业和畜牧业的，这不能确定。最早和最重要的变化实例之一，发生在大约公元前8500年至前7000年间的中东。被现代学者复原的一些情况表明，通过人们的迁徙和借鉴，谷物耕作技术从中东那里扩散到了欧洲和印度，中国和非洲的部分地区。在美洲，亚洲季风区和西非，农业可能被视为独立的发明，尽管这还不能确定。
    人类历史上第二个伟大的界标是，被我们称为“文明”的，需要熟练技术的复杂社会的产生。中东地区率先形成文明，这是无可争议的。人类最早的文明共同体成长于约前3500年至前3000年的幼发拉底—底格里斯河流域与尼罗河流域。印度河流域紧随其后。最初，文明格外受到地理环境的制约，只有在灌溉区才可以从同一块田地上年复一年的收获大量农作物。灌溉需要有大量的人们为挖沟和排水而进行必要的协作，由此形成了涵盖大量人口的社会组织，以及在复杂社会中的分工和各种专门人才，而农业的剩余产品可以供养他们。于是，文明形成于中东主要河流的冲积平原上，并且，直到很久之后，也没有转移。
    初始文明出现的大约1000年之后，人类开始将文明扩展到天然雨水灌溉区。这时，犁的发明是重要的。它允许古代的农民利用畜力完成耕作任务，借以使个体农民生产的食物大大增加。这创造了可加以利用的农业剩余产品，如同之前只能在灌溉区被生产出来的那些一样。另外，文明需要有特色的社会状态。统治者不得不寻找一些方法迫使种植者缴出他们自己的剩余产品，以供养新的宫廷和宫殿群。一些重大的变化依靠海洋贸易而发生，就像克里特岛的统治者采集整个地中海沿岸的水果，并凭借这种贸易的利益维持其在克诺索斯的宫殿群。
    草原牧民与战士们的初次领先引起了人类关系的第四次重大变化。这大约发生在公元前1700年左右。那时，战车技术在美索不达米亚的北部边缘地带被完善。战车给予那些懂得如何征服并利用马匹的战士们以领地。草原上出现的大规模的马匹饲养中心，是这些中亚和乌克兰部落的，操印欧语的战士们所取得的首要优势。这些战士们乘着马拉战车，横扫整个欧洲，西亚和印度。另一些人则设法学得战车技术，也制服了中国黄河流域的农民。
    在欧洲，印度和中国，先存的农业民族与土地上的新事物之间的互动，为三个全新和非常成功的文明形态的形成奠定了基础。它们发展的速度大抵相近。公元前500年，独特的欧洲文明在希腊形成；同样自具特色的印度文明出现在恒河流域；而在黄河中游地带，中华文明也展现出它自己的风采。
    中东有着更加复杂的历史。战车的征服所造成的影响，在美索不达米亚和埃及是相当表面的。因为当地民族很快就学会了如何使用战车去驱逐让他们的入侵者。三个文明帝国在埃及、小亚和美索不达米亚北部建立起来，然后彼此争夺中东地区的霸权，直到一股新的蛮族侵略浪潮袭来。新来者以铁制（实际上铁是更柔软的武器）兵器加以装备。铜器时代的那些大帝国，在用新的、更充足的金属装备起来的部落民的攻击之下崩溃了。但再一次的蛮族征服的影响是短暂的，几个新的帝国出现了，并使整个古代中东地区的易变的政治统一达到顶峰，先后处于亚述和波斯的统治之下。
    在乱作一团的发展过程里，埃及和美索不达米亚的文明被分隔开来，各种各样的“卫星”文明出现在天然雨水灌溉区周围，以及两个大河流域之间。它们全开始融入到一种全新的“中东大一体”的生活方式里。”中东世界观“的形成具有决定性的意义，它与国际化的文明很相称。这种”中东世界观“产生于犹太教，一种在公元前8至前6世纪，由先知塑造的宗教。犹太教与印度的佛教、中国的儒学和希腊的哲学一样，都是极为重要和打动人心的。它们也都在公元前6世纪之前形成了自己的最初特色。到公元前500年左右，古老文明的图景发展出四倍于从前的清晰而显著的焦点，构成世界历史的最初阶段走到了尽头。
    本书第一部分的目标是探索文明历史的最初阶段，支配后世大多数人生活的主要的思想与行为模式就是在那时，首次在人类的心灵与感情中打上了印记。


    （William H.McNeil,A World History,fourth edition,Oxford University Press, New York&Oxford,1999,The summary of Part I)
    PART   I
    Emergence and Definition of the Major Old World Civilizations to 500 B.C.
     summary
    THE first great landmark of human history was the development of food production.  This permitted an enormous multiplication of human numbers,and laid the basis for the emergence of civilizations.How,when,and where hunting and gathering gave way to farming and pastoralism is uncertain. One of the earliest and most important instances of this transition took place in the Middle East,between about 8500 and 7000 B.C.Thence, through migrations and borrowings, few of which can be reconstructed by modern scholars, grain cultivation spread into Europe and India , china, and parts of Africa.The Americas,monsoon Asia,and west Africa probably saw the independent invention of agriculture,though this is not certain.
    The second great landmark in the mankind's history was the emergence of skilled and complex societies we call civilized. Here the primacy of the Middle East is undisputed. Man's earliest civilized communities developed in the valleys of the Tigris-Euphrates and the Nile between about 3500 and 3000 B.C.The Indus- valley followed suit soon afterwards. At first civilized complexity required very special geographical conditions. Only on irrigated land could rich crops be harvested year after year from the same fields; and only where irrigation was needed did large numbers of men find it necessary to co-operate in digging and diking. An agricultural surplus that could support specialists,together with habits of  social organization embracing large numbers of men,thus could and did emerge in the flood plains of the principal Middle East-ern rivers,and,until much later,not elsewhere.
    About a thousand years thereafter,men began to extend civilized complexity to rain-watered land. The invention of the plow was here fundamental.It permitted ancient farmers to   harness the strength of animals to the tasks of cultivation, and thereby allowed the individual farmer to increase his food production very substantially. This made available an agricultural surplus such as had previously been produced only on irrigated land. In addition, civilization demanded a distinctive social order. Rulers had to find ways to compel the cultivators to hand over their surplus crops in order to support the new courts and palace cities.A significant variation depended on sea trade,which allowed rulers of such an island as Crete to gather th-e fruits of the entire Mediterranean coastline and suetain a palace city at Knossos on the strength of trading profits.
    A fourth great change in human relationships brought steppe pastoralists and warriors to the fore for the first time .This happened soon after 1700 B.C., when techniques of   chariot warfare were perfected somewhere along the northern fringes of Mesopotamia.Chariots gave dominion to warriors who knew how to tame horses, and since the central Asia, and India.Others,who had somehow a cquired the techniques of chariot warfare,also conquered the peasants of the Yellow river vally in China.
    In Europe,India,and China,interaction between pre-existing agricultural peoples and the new masters of the land laid the groundword for the emergence of three new and enormously successful styles of civilization.The pace of their development was roughly comparable,so that by 500 B.C. a distinctive European type of civilization had emerged in Greece; an equally distinctive Indian type of civilization had appeared in the Ganges river vally; and along the middle reaches of the Yellow river, Chinese civilization had liakewise asserted itself.
    The Middle East had a more complicated history. The effect of the chariot conquest on Mesopotamia and Egypt was comparatively superficial, since local peoples soon learned how to use chariots to oust their conquerors.Three civilized empires,based in Egypt,Asia Minor,and northern Mesopotamia,then competed for supremacy in the Middle East until a new wave of barbarian invasion struck.The newcomers were equi-pped with iron (actually soft steel) weapons,and the great empires of the Bronze Age broke under the attack of tribesmen armed with the mew and more abundant metal.But once again the effect of barbarian conquest was transitory.New empires arose,climaxing in the unstable political unification of the entire civilized area of the ancient Middle East,first under the Assyrians and then under the persians.
    As a result of this tangled development , what had once been   separate civilizations in Egypt and Mesopotamia,as well as various satellite civilizations that had arisen on rain-watered land around and bet-ween the two great river valleys,all began to merge into a new cosmopolitan Middle Eastern style of life.A decisive formulation of a  Middle Eastern wrold view appropriate to this cosmopolitan civilization took palce among the Jews,whose religion,as shaped by the prophets of the eighth to sixth centuries B.C.,was as vital and persuasive as the Buddhism of India,the Confucianism of China,or the philosophy of Greece,all o-f which also found their initial expression before the end of the sixth centuries B.C. With the clear and emphatic fourfold patterning of Old World civilization that thus came into focus by 500 B.C.,an initial,constitutive phase of world history came to a close.
    The aim of Part I of this book will be to explore this initial period of civilized history,when the main patter-ns of thought and conduct that governed most men's lives in later ages printed themselves upon human mind-s and feelings for the first time.
    第二部分     文明的平衡发展阶段，公元前500年至公元1500年

    概览
    在公元前500年到公元1500年之间的约2000年里，世界上没有一个文明中心具有明显的优势。在此之前，中东曾经取得首要的地位，甚至越过长长的距离，影响到它的近邻和更远之地。因为就其他地区的人们从前的所知，他们总认为中东的人们所熟悉的生活方式是具有明显优势的。但是当印度、希腊和中国的文明呈现出独特面貌的时候，这些文明的主人就不再感到与中东相比自己的劣势，反而变得对从如此不同的源头发出的影响漠不关心。而边缘地带的蛮族人，现在可以从中选择一些不同的文明模式去仿效，他们还常常把一种文明的要素同其他文明要素相调和。
    公元前500年出现于旧世界的四种独特的文明生活方式，彼此之间是大略相当的。但各个文明的发展与变化从未停止，遍及于接下来的几个世纪。地球上的地域被各个具有扩张趋势的文明占据。这个过程增加了各个文明核心区的容积与多样性，并减少了它们与蛮族地区之间的隔阂。在过去的几个世纪里，从欧亚大陆一端到另一端的交往，尽管还有一些阻碍，但频率增加了。这允许一个文化的领导者去借鉴或适应来自其他恰巧使他们感兴趣的文明的一些事物。的确，像这样的跨文化的借鉴，是发生于各个孤立的文明中的革新的首要触发剂之一。然而，这种借鉴一直是随意的、自发的，而非强制的。
    换句话说，各个主要的古老文明在两千年的时间里保持了各自的自治权。也许这四大文明之间想要实现一种平衡关系。虽然许多重要的危机有影响到系统里其他部分的趋势，但没有一个文明曾经达到那种程度或力量，可以根本地改变四倍于己的整体的平衡。
    在这期间，世界各文明之间均衡，仍然遭受了构成世界历史的主要文明基准的一连串的冲击。希腊和印度文明先后向外扩张，大大超越了它们最初的边界。然而中东地区的希腊化，就像中国和日本的印度化，最终被证明只是一个表面的、暂时的现象。在这两个例子中，强大的先天的反抗最终弃绝了在较早几代被殷切渴望接受的大部分不同的因素。然后，世界的平衡似乎因为伊斯兰王国的突然兴起而受到第三次威胁。伊斯兰王国的连续扩张，先是遍及古代中东，北非和西班牙（632-1000），然后到达印度，东欧和中亚（1000-1453）。北印度人的印度最终（1565）丧失了政治独立。作为结果，穆斯林的大君主与统治者们协力迫使北印度人改宗伊斯兰教（被改变信仰的人主要来自较低的社会阶层），并把印度教置于限制与压力之下，这深远地影响了它以后的发展。
    直到从西欧产生的第四次危机，最终颠覆了地球上的文化平衡。这个过程开始于公元1500年后，那时欧洲人的进取心首次开发了美洲，并探测了地球上其他地区适合居住的海岸。然而真正有意义的是，到1850年，西方世界取得了相对地球其他主要文明的压倒性的优势,它迫使非西方社会的领导者抛弃其祖先经受过时间考验的生活方法，而向他们的传统屈服。为了实现现代化，各文化自治体通过从西方借鉴技术，开始了几乎没有希望的努力。
    关于世界历史现代时期的这些思考，将被保留在本书第三和第四部分。在第二部分。我们将论及一个比在较早或在较晚时代更为清晰的中间期。文明世界各个孤立的部分走着它们自己的道路，我们只去关注其边界发生了什么转移。
    PART  II     Equilibrium Among the Civilizations   500 B.C.-----A.D.1500
    summary
    FOR  about 2000 years , between 500 B.C., and A.D. 1500,no single center   of civilized   life enjoyed definite preponderance in the world . Before that time, the Middle East had taken first place,influencing neighbors and neighbors' neighbors,even across long distances,because aspects of   the way of living familiar to men in the Middle East struck others as definitely superior to what they themselves had previously known.But as the civilizations of India,Greece,and China assumed distinctive shapes,the bearers of these civilizations ceased to feel inferiorit-y vis-a-vis   the Middle East and became correspondingly indifferent to   influences issuing from   such an alien source . On the   margins ,barbarians now had several variant models of civilized life from which to choose,and they often mixed elements of one civilization with those of another.
    The four distinctive civilized styles of   life   which had arisen in the Old World by 500 B.C. were roughly equivalent   to each other.Throughout the   ensuing   centuries,growth and modification within  each of these civilizations never ceased.The area of the earth occupied by each civilization tended to expand.This of course,increased the bulk and variety within each civilized heartland and reduced the insulating   barbarain   zones   between. Contact from one end of Euraisa to the other tended,despite some setbacks,to increase in frequency as the centuries passed.This permitted leaders of one    culture to borrow or adapt items from other civilizations which happend to interest them.Such crosscultural borrowing was , indeed, one of the principal stimuli to innovation within each separate civilization.Yet such borrowings were always voluntary,spontaneous never forced.
    In other words,each of the major civilizations of the Old World retained   its autonomy for a two-thousand-year   period . The relationship between   the four may be   thought of as an equilibrium.Any important disturbance tended to affect other parts of the system,but no one civilization ever attained   such scale or power as fundamentally to alter the fourfold balance of the whole.
    The equilibrium among the world's civilizations did, nonetheless,suffer a series of shocks which constitute   the major bench marks   of   world history   during this period.First Greek and then Indian civilization spread widely beyond their original borders.Yet the Hellenization of the Millde East,like the I-ndianization of China and Japan,proved in the end to be only a superfical,temporary phenomenon. In both cases strong   native reactions eventually rep-udiated most of the alien elements accepeted eagerly in earlier generations.Then for a third time the world's balance seemed threatened by the sudde-n rise of Islam and its successive stages of expansion,first throughout   the ancient Middle East,north Africa,and Spain(632----1000),and then into India,eastern Europe,and central Asia(1000----1453).Hindu India eventually(1565) lost political independence.As a result,Moslem overlords and rulers joined forces with converts to Islam(who were drawn mainly from the lower castes)to put Hinduism under restrictions and pressures that  profoundly affected its subsequent development.
    Still a fourth diaturbance,emanating this time from western Europe ,finally upset the cultural balance of the earth.The process began after A.D.1500 wh-en European enterprise first opened the Americas and explored the rest   of the earth's habitable coastlines.Yet in a real sense , it was not until 1850 that the Western world attained such   crushing superiority over the     other major civilizations of the earth as to compel the      leaders of      all         non-Western societies to abandon their ancestors' time-tested  ways and surrender their traditional,cultural autonomies in order to enter upon a desper-ate effort to "modernize" by   borrowing skills from the West.
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译威廉.麦克尼尔《世界史》（双语对照）