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注释： ①“联盟”的英文单词主要有league和alliance。除此之外，union,concert,entente,association,confederation,federation,consolidates,coalition等也可视为“联盟”的近义词。为行文方便，笔者在这里一律将league译成“联盟”，将alliance译成“同盟”。 ②学术界目前与这一问题相关的研究主要有如下几个有代表性的路径：第一类是从和平运动历史的角度探讨“联盟”问题，强调和平主义者、和平组织等对国联、联合国等国际组织的贡献。典型的如C.Roland Marchand,The American Peace Movement and Social Reform,1889-1918,Princeton:Princeton University Press,1973; Merle Curti,Peace or War:the American Struggle,1636-1936,New York:W.W.Norton and Company,1936等。第二类是将19世纪美国奉行的外交政策界定为孤立主义，将美国未能成功加入国联归因于这一传统，见Denna Frank Fleming,The United States and the League of Nations,1918-1920,New York:Russell and Russell,1968; Selig Adler,The Isolationist Impulse:Its Twentieth Century Reaction,New York:Abelard-Schuman,1957等。第三类更侧重从文化观念的角度，探讨美国对外政策中民族主义与国际主义的张力，认为联合国等国际组织是美国社会的国际主义逐渐走向成熟和制度化的产物，这方面可参见Akira Iriye,Global Community:The Role of International Organizations in the Making of the Contemporary World,Berkley:University of California Press,2002; Frank Ninkovich,The Wilsonian Century:U.S.Foreign Policy Since 1900,Chicago:University of Chicago Press,2001等。第四类则重视回归华盛顿和杰斐逊等所使用的“联盟”概念，将国际组织放在美国从拒绝联盟到欢迎联盟的视角下来看，并且试图为美国的联盟政策提供建议，代表性的有G.F.Hudson,"Collective Security and Military Alliances," in Herbert Butterfield and Martin Wight,eds.,Diplomatic Investigations,Cambridge,MA:Harvard University Press,1968:David Fromkin,"Entangling Alliances," Foreign Affairs,Vol.48,no.4(July 1970); Robert Powaski,Toward an Entangling Alliance:American Isolationism,Internationalism,and Europe,1901-1950,New York:Greenwood Press,1991; Michael Beckley,"The Myth of Entangling Alliances," International Security,Vol.39,no.4(Spring 2015)等。 ③A Farmer,"Anti-Federalist,No.3," in Richard S.Conley,Historical Dictionary of the U.S.Constitution,Lanham:Rowan & Littlefield,p.363. ④James Madison,Alexander Hamilton,John Jay,Fedralist Papers,New York:Palgrave Macmiuian,2009,pp.75-76. ⑤Hans J.Morgenthau,Politics Among Nations:The Struggle for Power and Peace,Beijing:Peking University Press,1997,pp.342--343. ⑥Ralph Ketcham,"The Revolutionary Background of American Constitutional Thought," in Ralph Ketcham ed.,The Anti-Federalist Papers and the Constitutional Convention Debates:The Clashes and Compromises that Gave Birth to Our Government,New York:Penguin Books,2003,pp.18-19. ⑦Giorgio Mariani,Waging War on War:Peacefighting in American Literature,Chicago:University of Illinois Press,2015,pp.94-97. ⑧James Bryce,The American Commonwealth,New York:Macmillan and CO.,1893,pp.16-17,p.23. ⑨Charles Sumner Lobingier,"Memorial Day's New Meaning," The Christian Century,Vol.37,no.22(May 27,1920),p.12. ⑩例如威尔逊1919年9月在圣迭戈的一次演说中便这样说道：“我知道，当我们在谈到某种涉及到联盟的事物时会遇到的困难，但是我不相信华盛顿在警告我们不要卷入纷扰的联盟(entangling alliance)时，他是在指当某种可以减少战争和促进和平的方式出现时，我们不应与世界上其他的文明国家合作。”Woodrow Wilson,Addresses of President Wilson,Washington:Government Printing Office,2009,p.269.威尔逊在西部的演说中不止一次犯了这个张冠李戴的错误。 (11)Gordon Wood,Empire of Liberty:A History of the Early Republic,1789-1815,Oxford:Oxford University Press,2009,p.49. (12)William Ladd,Prize Essays on a Congress of Nations,Boston:Whipple & Damrell,1840,p.iv. (13)Charles Sumner Lobingier,"Memorial Day's New Meaning," The Christian Century,Vol.37,no.22(May 27,1920),p.13. (14)Lucia Ames Mead,Outline of Lessons on War and Peace,World Peace Foundation,February,1915,p.39. (15)Akira Iriye,From Nationalism to Internationalism U.S.Foreign Policy to 1914,London:Routledge,2002,pp.16-17. (16)William T.Stead,The United States of Europe on the Eve of the Parliament of Peace,London:William Clowes and Sons,Ltd.,1899,pp.32-33. (17)“阿拉巴马号”是南北战争期间英国为南方所造的军舰，曾摧毁北方近70艘船只。战后美国就此事向英国提出索赔，最终在1871年通过国际仲裁的方式得以解决。 (18)塔夫脱、布莱恩等著名政治家，中国的伍廷芳等都曾参加过莫洪克湖国际仲裁会议。 (19)Hans Morgenthau,Politics among Nations:The Struggle for Power and Peace,New York:Alfred A.Knopf,1948,p.341. (20)例如著名和平主义者卡内基在1895年便鼓吹过英美联盟。 (21)Arthur Silva White,"An Anglo-American Alliance," The North American Review,Vol.158,no.449(April 1894),p.489,Duncan Bell,"The Victorian Idea of a Global State," in Duncan Bell ed.,Victorian Visions of Global Order:Empire and International Relations in Nineteenth-Century Political Thought,Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2009,p.166. (22)Andrew Carnegie,"Peace to Come at Last-A Peace League of the Nations," The Advocate of Peace(December 1905),Vol.67,no.11,p.253. (23)Andrew Carnegie,"The Next Step-A League of Nations," The Outlook,Vol.86,no.4(May 25,1907),p.151. (24)Theodore Roosevelt,"Mr.Roosevelt's Nobel Address on International Peace," The American Journal of International Law,Vol.4,no.3(July,1910),pp.701-702. (25)Theodore Roosevelt,"Mr.Roosevelt's Nobel Address on International Peace," The American Journal of International Law,Vol.4,no.3(July,1910),p.701. (26)这些派别内部的观点并非完全一致，有时甚至相互之间有很大差别。不同派别间的观点也并非没有交集。除理念外，党派、个人关系、国际形势、维护大局的考虑等都会对具体主张产生影响。例如鲁特曾一度支持执行派的主张；罗斯福在与塔夫脱关系恶化的时候坚决反对执行联盟，甚至反对任何形式的国联计划，恢复友谊后又改变了态度；洛奇与威尔逊个人关系紧张是其坚决反对国联的原因之一，而与塔夫脱的良好关系又使得他与罗斯福不同，对执行派一直较为宽容。本文只是借用韦伯所谓“理想型”(ideal type)的方法，将其抽象成了几个派别。 (27)Hon.Theodore Marburg,"The World Court Movement," The World Court(September,1915),p.74. (28)"Editorials:The Second World Court Congress," The World Court(May,1916),p.464. (29)William Dudley Foulke,"Possibilities and Limitations of a World Court," The World Court(September,1915),pp.90-91. (30)Stephen Wertheim,"The League That Wasn't:American Designs for a Legalist-Sanctionist League of Nations and the Intellectual Origins of International Organization,1914-1920," Diplomatic History,Vol.35,no.5 (November 2011). (31)Hon.Theodore Marburg,"The World Court Movement," The World Court(September,1915),p.78. (32)Hon.Theodore Marburg,"The World Court Movement," The World Court(September,1915),p.78. (33)威尔逊的“联盟”观念可参见Quincy Wright,"Woodrow Wilson and the League of Nations," Social Research,Vol.24,no.1(Spring 1957); Warren F.Kuehl,Seeking World Order:The United States and International Organization to 1920,Nashville:Vanderbilt University Press,1969; Arthur Link,The Higher Realism of Woodrow Wilson:And Other Essays,Nashville:Vanderbilt University Press,1971; John Milton Cooper,Jr.,Breaking the Heart of the World:Woodrow Wilson and the Fight for The League of Nations,Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2001等。 (34)David S.Patterson,"The United States and the Origins of the World Court," Political Science Quarterly,Vol.91,no.2(Summer,1976),p.292. (35)Woodrow Wilson,Addresses of President Wilson,Washington:Government Printing Office,2009,p.172. (36)关于罗斯福和洛奇等前“帝国主义者”对联盟的看法，可参见William C.Widenor,Henry Cabot Lodge and the Search for an American Foreign Policy,Berkeley:University of California Press,1980; James E.Hewes,Jr.,"Henry Cabot Lodge and the League of Nations," Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society,Vol.114,no.4(August 20,1970); Howard K.Beale,Theodore Roosevelt and the Rise of America to World Power,Baltimore:John Hopkins University Press,1956等。 (37)有关罗斯福的“文明”观念可参见Frank Ninkovich,"Civilization as an Ideology,' Diplomatic History 10(Summer 1986); Gail Bederman,Manliness and Civilization:A Cultural History of Gender and Race in the United States,1880-1917,Chicago:The University of Chicago Press,1995; James R.Holmes,Theodore Roosevelt and World Order:Police Power in International Relations,Washington,D.C.:Potomac Books,Inc.,2006等。 (38)乔治·凯南认为，通过寄希望于集体行动来提供执行，它“忘记了对军事联盟(military coalition)效率的限制……一个同盟范围越广，它就越难维持政治上的统一和一致”。George Kennan,American Diplomacy,Chicago:The University of Chicago Press,2012,p.78. 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