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注释： ①National Security Council(NSC), NSC 135/3,“Reappraisal of United States Objectives and Strategy for National Security,” Sep. 25, 1952, PD00306, Database: Digital National Security Archive(DNSA), ProQuest Information and Learning Company.类似的文件还有NSC 20/4、NSC68、NSC162、NSC5422/2等。 ②Harry S. Truman,“Special Message to the Congress on Greece and Turkey: The Truman Doctrine,” Mar. 12, 1947, in Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley, The American Presidency Project, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=12846; John F. Kennedy,“Special Message to the Congress on Urgent National Needs,” May 25, 1961, Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley, The American Presidency Project, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=8151. ③Department of State,“New Dimensions of Diplomacy,” Dec. 5, 1960, John F. Kennedy Presidential Library, Papers of James C. Thomson, Jr., Box 7, Chester Bowles; President's Committee on Information Activities Abroad,“Conclusions and Recommendations of the President's Committee on Information Activities Abroad,” 6th Draft, Dec. 1960, p. 3, http://www.foia.cia.gov/helms/pdf/sprague_report.pdf. ④Milton J. Rosenberg,“The Decline and Rise of the Cold War Consensus,” The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, Mar. 1981; Jack L. Snyder, Myths of Empire: Domestic Politics and International Ambition, Ithaca, N. Y.: Cornell University Press, 1993, p. 255. ⑤利用解密文件对冷战时期美国政府实施的意识形态战(ideological warfare)进行系统学术研究，在中国只是近几年的事情，西方学术界也起步较晚。已有研究多将美国的意识形态战看作是其对外政策的一部分，但事实上，没有美国国内的思想统一和舆论偏向，没有美国各组织团体的积极参与，意识形态战亦很难贯彻下去。从这个角度来看，西方学者对美国的内部学说灌输或意识形态灌输活动研究还有很大不足，对冷战前期美国社会整体上出现的激进思想倾向也没有很好的总结。此外，尽管美国有“信息自由法”(FOIA)和比较规范的政府文件解密制度，但对于解密过程控制仍非常严格，这是导致诸如“战斗的自由”理念如何得以贯彻这样的敏感信息仍大部分处于保密状态的主要原因。本文所言思想灌输活动包括从意识形态研究到一般学说在内的项目与活动，已有研究参见Scott Lucas, Freedom’s War: The American Crusade against the Soviet Union. New York: New York University Press, 1999; Kenneth Alan Osgood, Total Cold War: Eisenhower’s Secret Propaganda Battle at Home and Abroad, Lawrence: University of Kansas, 2006; Frances Stoner Saunders, The Cultural Cold War: The CIA and the World of Arts and Letters, New York: New Press, 1999. ⑥Daniel Lee Lykins, From Total War to Total Diplomacy: The Advertising Council, Domestic Propaganda and Cold War Consensus, Dissertation, Lexington: University of Kentucky, 1998, p. 132. ⑦这方面的例子非常多，如美国行政机构与广告委员会(The Advertising Council)合作，筹划并推出一系列以“增强抵制内外共产主义宣传毒害的影响”为目的的公共广告活动；影视媒体放映《共产主义的号召力》、《同谋者》、《红色恐怖》等影片；新闻媒体刊发有关“共产主义正试图瓦解美国”、“苏联发起憎恨美国运动”等消息。 ⑧Stephen J. Whitfield, The Culture of the Cold War, Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996, pp. 53-58. ⑨C.D. Jackson and Robert Cutler Discuss,“Age of Peril”Memo, Jul. 28, 1953, CK3100307104, Database: Declassified Documents Reference System(DDRS), Gale Group, Inc.. ⑩James Hagerty,“Press Secretary to the President,” May 31, 1956, Dwight D. Eisenhower Library, http://www.eisenhower.archives.gov/research/online_documents/people_to_people/BinderV.pdf. (11)U.S. Senate, 86th Congress, 1st Session,“Department of Defense Appropriations for 1960: Hearings before the Subcommittee of the Committee on Appropriations,” Readex U. S. Congressional Serial Set, Washington, D. C.: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1959, p. 131; Lori Lyn Bogle, The Pentagon's Battle for the American Mind: The Early Cold War, College Station, TX: Texas A & M. University Press, 2004, p. 119. (12)U. S. Senate, 86th Congress, 1st Session,“Department of Defense Appropriations for 1960: Hearings before the Subcommittee of the Committee on Appropriations,” p. 131. (13)Secretary of Defense's Advisory Committee,“POW: The Fight Continues after the Battle,” The Report of the Secretary of Defense's Advisory Committee on Prisoners of War, 1955, p. 13, http://www.loc.gov/rr/frd/Military_Law/pdf/POW-report.pdf. (14)Christopher S. DeRosa, Political Indoctrination in the U. S. Army from World War II to the Vietnam War, Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2006, p. 150; Herbert Elliston,“‘Militant Liberty’: Words and Deeds,” The Washington Post and Times Herald, Jan. 15, 1956, p. E4. (15)Thomas Alfred Palmer,“Why We Fight”: A Study of Indoctrination Activities in the Armed Forces, Dissertation, University of South Carolina, 1971, Database: ProQuest Dissertations and Theses(PQDT), pp. 32-33. (16)Lori Lyn Bogle, The Pentagon's Battle for the American Mind: The Early Cold War, pp. 116-118. (17)Lori Lyn Bogle, The Pentagon's Battle for the American Mind: The Early Cold War, pp. 116-118. (18)冷战时期，美国教会和保守派宗教人士大量参与国内政治活动和冷战对外宣传活动。由于美国认定“自由民主”源于宗教精神，而共产主义的无神论信仰又迥异于西方，因此宗教团体和教士在美国社会影响力的增强，实际上从另一个侧面证明了反共意识形态在美国政治生活中的影响力不断增强。 (19)Christopher S. DeRosa, Political Indoctrination in the U. S. Army from World War II to the Vietnam War, p. 149. (20)George Dugan,“Religion Called Key to Security: Radford and A. E. C. Head Stress Role of Faith in American,” New York Times, Oct. 26, 1955, p. 16. (21)U. S. Department of Defense, Militant Liberty: A Program of Evaluation and Assessment of Freedom, Washington, D. C.: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1955, p. 1. (22)U. S. Department of Defense, Militant Liberty: A Program of Evaluation and Assessment of Freedom, pp. 2, 4-5, 10-11. (23)Samuel P. Huntington, The Soldier and the State: The Theory and Politics of Civil-Military Relations, Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1957, p. 397. (24)Joint Chiefs of Staff,“Brief of Military Liberty Project,” Oct. 22, 1954, CK3100082153, DDRS. (25)Joint Chiefs of Staff,“Brief of Military Liberty Project,” Oct. 22, 1954. (26)Dwight D. Eisenhower,“Executive Order 10483: Establishing the Operations Coordinating Board,” Sep. 2, 1953, in Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley, The American Presidency Project, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=60573. (27)Joint Chiefs of Staff,“Brief of Military Liberty Project,” Oct. 22, 1954. (28)Joint Subsidiary Plans Division/Joint Chief of Staff(JSPD/JCS) Militant Liberty Outline Plan, Nov. 5, 1954, CK3100092981, DDRS. (29)“OCB Concern with Militant Liberty,” undated, CK3100007586, DDRS. (30)JSPD/JCS,“Militant Liberty Outline Plan,” Nov. 5, 1954, Eisenhower Library, White House Office, NSC Staff Papers 1948-1961, OCB Central Files, Box 70, OCB 091. 4 Ideological Programs(File #1)(8), pp. 27-28. (31)U. S. Senate, 86th Congress, 1st Session,“Department of Defense Appropriations for 1960: Hearings before the Subcommittee of the Committee on Appropriations,” p. 131. (32)Dwight D. Eisenhower,“Executive Order 10631: Code of Conduct for Members of the Armed Forces of the United States,” Aug. 17, 1955, in Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley, The American Presidency Project, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=59249. (33)JSPD/JCS,“Militant Liberty Outline Plan,” Nov. 5, 1954, Eisenhower Library, White House Office, NSC Staff Papers 1948-1961, OCB Central Files, Box 70, OCB 091. 4 Ideological Programs(File #1)(8); John G. Norris,“Plan Aimed to Promote Free World Principles: Concept Sponsored by Radford Already Being Used,” The Washington Post and Times Herald, Nov. 22, 1955, p. 1. (34)Central Intelligence Agency, Memorandum for the Director:“Brainwashing,” Jun. 7, 1956, CIA-RDP80R01731R000300200018-2, Database: The CIA Records Search Tool (CIA CREST). (35)U. S. House, 84th Congress, 1st Session,“Department of the Army Appropriations for 1956: Hearings before the Subcommittee of the Committee on Appropriations,” Washington D. C.: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1955, p.853; John G. Norris,“Plan Aimed to Promote Free World Principles: Concept Sponsored by Radford Already Being Used,” p. 1. (36)U. S. Department of Defense, Militant Liberty: A Program of Evaluation and Assessment of Freedom, p. i. (37)U. S. House, 85th Congress, 1st Session,“Department of the Army Appropriations for 1958: Hearings before the Subcommittee of the Committee on Appropriations,” Washington D. C.: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1957, p. 582. (38)Thomas Alfred Palmer,“Why We Fight”: A Study of Indoctrination Activities in the Armed Forces, p. 53. (39)美国“忠诚日”(Loyalty Day)是一个法定节日，时间为每年的5月1日。1921年，“忠诚日”为对抗共产主义“劳动节”而设立，但一直不受重视。直到1958年，艾森豪威尔任总统时期，美国国会以立法形式加以确认，并明确其目的是为纪念“美国自由的传统”。“忠诚日”由此成为冷战的产物。 (40)U. S. House, 86th Congress, 1st Session,“Report of Chairman, Robert E. Hansen, National Loyalty Day Committee, Proceedings of the 59th National Convention of the Veterans of Foreign Wars of the United States, August 17-23, 1958”(H. Doc. 84, Serial Set vol. no. 12190, Session vol. no. 9), Readex U. S. Congressional Serial Set, p. 202. (41)“Radford and ‘Militant Liberty,’” The Washington Post and Times Herald, Jun. 24, 1957, p. A2. (42)Walter F. Hahn and John C. Neff, eds., American Strategy for the Nuclear Age, New York: Anchor Books, 1960; Sara Diamond, Roads to Dominion: Right-Wing Movements and Political Power in the United States, New York: Guilford Press, 1995, p. 47. (43)National Security Council,“Memorandum for the Executive Secretary: Problem of Cold War Planning,” Aug. 26, 1957, CK3100006492, DDRS. (44)Joseph S. Nye, Jr., The Future of Power, N. Y.: Public Affairs[TM], 2011, p. 116. (45)“Letter from George Savage to General Millard Young,” May 7, 1954, Eisenhower Library, White House Office, NSC Staff Papers, 1948-1961, OCB Central Files, Box 70, OCB 091. 4 Ideological Programs, File#1 (2). (46)Alan Johnson,“The Cultural Cold War: Faust Not the Pied Piper,” New Politics, vol. 3, Summer2001, p. 140. (47)Tony Shaw, Hollywood's Cold War, Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2007. (48)Michael Fitzgerald,“Television Portrayals of Native Americans: From Tonto to Uncle Ray(1949-2006),” Left Curve, vol. 31, Spring 2007, pp. 129-138, 144. (49)从现有材料来看，该项目在美国政府实施的对外隐蔽行动中存在了很长时间。当许多部门认为这个项目已经被“抛弃”时，美国国防部仍在拉美许多国家推行着“战斗的自由”理念。而项目的国内活动也没有遽然中断。布鲁格本人直到20世纪80年代仍在担任“武装部队信息与教育处”主任，控制着国防部1000多个军事广播电台、电视台和2000多份报纸等宣传工具，足见其倡导的理念并没有遭到完全否定。详见“OCB Concern with Militant Liberty,”CK3100007586, DDRS; Deputy Chief, Psychological and Paramilitary Staff, “Memorandum for Director of Central Intelligence,” Sep. 27, 1957, CIA-RDP80801676R001200130013-3, CIA CREST; Jeff Sharlet, The Family: The Secret Fundamentalism at the Heart of American Power, New York, N. Y.:HarperCollins, 2008, p. 202. (50)NSC, NSC 68,“United States Objectives and Programs for National Security,” Apr. 14, 1950, CK3100347913, DDRS, p. 11. (51)Lori Lyn Bogle, The Pentagon's Battle for the American Mind: The Early Cold War, p. 84. (52)Jennifer Frost,“Hollywood Gossip as Public Sphere: Hedda Hopper, Reader-Respondents, and the Red Scare, 1947-1965,” Cinema Journal, vol. 50, no. 2 (Winter 2011), p. 91. (53)Stephen J. Whitfield, The Culture of the Cold War, p. 53. (54)United States Department of State,“Report on a 6 Month Trip around the World to Study U. S. Propaganda Overseas,” CK3100207021, DDRS; Robert Jackall and Janice M. Hirota, Image Makers: Advertising, Public Relations, and the Ethos of Advocacy, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000, pp. 53-54. (55)The Citizenship Education Project, When Men Are Free: Premises of American Liberty,Cambridge, MA: The Riverside Press, 1955. (56)The Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training,“Foreign Affairs Oral History Project, Information Series: Interview with Earl Wilson,” http://memory.loc.gov/service/mss/mssmisc/mfdip/2005％20txt％20files/2OO4will2.txt; Kenneth Alan Osgood, Total Cold War: Eisenhower's Secret Propaganda Battle at Home and Abroad, p. 319. (57)亦称“学说战”或“学说项目”。由心理战略委员会(1953年后行动协调委员会)牵头，有美国国务院、中央情报局、美国新闻署、国防部和援外事务管理署等部门参与的规模庞大的反共心理战计划。其目的是“有计划地攻击敌对体系的基本意识形态；同时促进我方体系之基本观念获得承认与接受的积极努力”。“Ideological Warfare, Apr. 18, 1952, Eisenhower Library, Edward Lilly Papers 1928-1992, Box 54. Folder: Doctrinal Programs 1952. (58)Operations Coordinating Board,“Outline Plan of Operations for the Ideological Program,” Nov. 23,1954, Eisenhower Library, White House Office, National Security Council Staff Papers, 1948-1961, OCB Central Files, Box 70, OCB 091. 4 Ideological Program(File #2)(1). (59)该委员会先与“行动协调委员会”联络，建议行政机构成立一个国际培训学院，专门培训来自世界各国的反共领导人。从学院毕业的成员返回各自国家后，成立一个国家层面的学术组织，尽一切可能对所在国农民、工人、商人、专业人员、知识分子和牧师等群体进行意识形态灌输，但其建议未被采纳。 (60)The Orlando Committee,“The Lincoln-Petkov Academy and the National Academy Organizations,” Nov.4, 1954, Eisenhower Library, White House Office, National Security Council Staff Papers, 1948-1961, OCB Central Files, Box 70, OCB 091. 4 Ideological Programs(File #1)(8). (61)U. S. Senate, 86th Congress, 1st Session,“Department of Defense Appropriations for 1960: Hearings before the Subcommittee of the Committee on Appropriations,” p. 132. (62)U. S. House of Representatives, 86th Congress, 1st Session, H. R. 3880,“A Bill to Create the Freedom Commission in the House of Representatives,” Feb. 2, 1959, Eisenhower Library, Edward Lilly Papers 1928-1992, Box 55, Folder: Freedom Academy(2); U. S. Senate, 87th Congress, 1st Session, S. 822,“A Bill to Create the Freedom Commission and the Freedom Academy in the Senate of the United States,” Feb. 9, 1961, Eisenhower Library, Edward Lilly Papers 1928-1992, Box 55, Folder: Freedom Academy(1). (63)在众议院仅因时间原因未能付诸表决。U. S. House, 90th Congress, 1st Session, Report No. 1050,“Freedom Commission and Freedom Academy,” Dec. 15, 1967, Readex U. S. Congressional Serial Set. (64)Thomas Alfred Palmer,“Why We Fight” : A Study of Indoctrination Activities in the Armed Forces, p. 40. (65)广告委员会成立于1942年，最初是受罗斯福总统的委托，希望美国的媒体精英能够帮助团结美国人共同投入到反法西斯的战争努力中。二战结束后广告委员会进行了重组。冷战时期，广告委员会在美国社会舆论的形成中有着至关重要的影响力，曾积极促进“冷战共识”的形成，并帮助征召3万美国青年人加入和平队。 (66)Robert Jackall and Janice M. Hirota, Image Makers: Advertising, Public Relations, and the Ethos of Advocacy, pp. 49-50; “Air Defense from the Groud Up,” LIFE, Oct. 27, 1952, p. 141. (67)Kenneth Alan Osgood, Total Cold War: Eisenhower's Secret Propaganda Battle at Home and Abroad, p. 319. (68)“Suggested Domestic Implementation Actions Relating to Eisenhower' s UN Address on ‘Atoms for Progress and Peace, ’” CK3100318160, DDRS. (69)Frederick L. Anderson,“Psychological Aspects of United States Strategy: Panel Report,” Nov. 29,1955, CK3100447519, DDRS, p. 33. (70)Operations Coordinating Board,“Report of the Ad Hoc Working Group on Broger' s Militant Liberty Project,” Feb. 11, 1955, Eisenhower Library, White House Office, National Security Council Staff Papers, 1948-1961, OCB Central Files, Box 71, OCB 091. 4 Ideological Program(File #2)(7). (71)“OCB Concern with Militant Liberty,” CK3100007586, DDRS. (72)United States Information Agency(USIA),“Members of Ad Hoc Working Group on ‘Militant Liberty, ’” Jan. 28, 1955, Eisenhower Library, White House Office, National Security Council Staff Papers, 1948-1961, OCB Central Files, Box 71, OCB 091. 4 Ideological Program(File #2)(5). (73)Committee on Un-American Activities,“Annual Report for the Year 1964, 88th Congress, 2nd Session,” Sep. 9, 1965, LexisNexis Congressional Research Digital Collection, ProQuest LLC, 2012, p. 9. (74)H. R. 3880, 86th Congress, 1st Session, Feb. 2, 1959, Eisenhower Library, Edward Lilly Papers 1928-1992, Box 55, Folder: Freedom Academy(2); S. 822, 87th Congress, 1st Session, Feb. 9, 1961, Eisenhower Library, Edward Lilly Papers 1928-1992, Box 55, Folder: Freedom Academy(1). (75)H. R. 3880, 86th Congress, 1st Session, Feb. 2, 1959, Eisenhower Library, Edward Lilly Papers 1928-1992, Box 55, Folder: Freedom Academy(2). (76)Memorandum for the Psychological Strategy Board,“The U. S. Doctrinal Program, PSB D-33/2,” May5, 1953, CIA-RDP80R01731R003200050006-0, CIA CREST. (77)NSC, NSC 68,“United States Objectives and Programs for National Security,” April. 14 1950, p. 23. (78)Lori Lyn Bogle, The Pentagon's Battle for the American Mind: The Early Cold War, p. 84. (79)Public Laws, CH. 36,“United States Information and Educational Exchange Act of 1948,” Jan. 27, 1948, p. 10, http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/177574.pdf. (80)Kennon H. Nakamura and Matthew C. Weed,“U. S. Public Diplomacy: Background and Current Issues,” Dec. 18, 2009, R40989, Congressional Research Service, p. 4; Matthew C. Weed,“U. S. Public Diplomacy: Legislative Proposals to Amend Prohibitions on Disseminating Materials to Domestic Audiences,” Sep. 21, 2012, R42754, Congressional Research Service, p. 2. (81)艾森豪威尔积极支持用宗教凝聚美国民众，并以宗教为武器展开反击共产主义的冷战斗争。在其任期内，艾森豪威尔多次在公开场合强调，美国在处理内部问题和对外关系时要依赖道德和精神力量。“Planning and Programming in the Area of Moral and Spiritual Values,” Sep. 4, 1953, Eisenhower Library, White House Office, NSC Staff Papers 1948-1961, OCB Secretariat Series, Box 5, Moral and Religious; Stephen J. Whitfield, The Culture of the Cold War, p. 88.艾森豪威尔政府在一份国家安全委员会指令文件中明确规定，“要充分利用军事人员和军事设施来唤起公众警惕冷战的危险。”参见Congressional Record, Senate,“Memorandum Submitted to Department of Defense on Propaganda Activities of Military Personnel,” Aug. 2, 1961, LexisNexis Congressional Record Permanent Digital Collection, ProQuest LLC, 2012, p. 14433. (82)“From Kenneth P. Landon to Mr. Elmer B. Staats,” Feb. 11, 1955, Eisenhower Library, White House Office, National Security Council Staff Papers, 1948-1961, OCB Central Files, Box 71, OCB 091. 4 Ideological Program(File #2)(6). (83)Deputy Chief, Psychological and Para-mitary Staff,“Memorandum for Director of Central Intelligence,” Sep. 27, 1957, CIA-RDP80B01676R001200130013-3, CIA CREST. (84)Sara Diamond, Roads to Dominion: Right-Wing Movements and Political Power in the United States, p. 48. (85)Congressional Record, Senate, “Memorandum Submitted to Department of Defense on Propaganda Activities of Military Personnel,” Aug. 2, 1961, p. 14433. (86)Joseph M. Siracusa, The Kennedy Years, New York: Facts On File, 2004, p. 447. (87)The Rockefeller Foundation,“The Rockefeller Foundation Annual Report, 1954,” New York, 1956, pp.207-208, http://www.rockefellerfoundation.org/about-us/annual-reports/1950-1959. (88)Jurriaan Maessen,“Documents Reveal Rockefeller Foundation, Actively Engaged in Mass Mind-Control,” Infowars. com, Mar. 4, 2012, http://www.infowars.com/documents-reveal-rocketeller-foundation-actively-engaged-in-mass-mind-control/. (89)Committee on Un-American Activities,“Annual Report for the Year 1964, 88th Congress, 2nd Session,” Sep. 9, 1965, LexisNexis Congressional Research Digital Collection, p. 5. (90)Jessica Meyerson,“Theater of War: American Propaganda Films during the Second World War,” in Robert Jackall, ed., Propaganda, New York: New York University Press, 1995, p. 225. (91)George W. Bush, Decision Points, New York: Crown Publishers, 2010, p. 169. (92)NSC, NSC 68/3,“United States Objectives and Programs for National Security,” Dec. 8, 1950, Annex No. 5, PD00181, DNSA, p. 4. (93)Lori Lyn Bogle, The Pentagon's Battle for the American Mind: The Early Cold War, p. 119. (94)U. S. Department of Defense, Militant Liberty: A Program of Evaluation and Assessment of Freedom, p. v. (95)Scott Lucas, Freedom's War: The American Crusade against the Soviet Union, p. 224. (96)George W. Bush,“Inaugural Address,” Jan. 20, 2005, in Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley, The American Presidency Project, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=58745. (97)John Fousek, To Lead the Free World: American Nationalism and the Cultural Roots of the Cold War, Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000, p. 2. (98)Danny Cooper, Neoconservatism and American Foreign Policy: A Critical Analysis, N. Y.: Routledge, 2011, p. 12. (责任编辑：admin) |