|
⑧David J. Rothman, “Perfecting the Prison: United States, 1789-1865,” in Norval Morris and David Rothman, eds., The Oxford History of the Prison, New York: Oxford University Press, 1995, p. 124. ⑨Enoch C. Wines and Theodore W. Dwight, Report on the Prisons and Reformatories of the United States and Canada, Albany, New York: Van Benthuysen & Sons, 1867, pp. 287-288. ⑩Marvin Zalman, “The Rise and Fall of the Indeterminate Sentence,” Wayne Law Review, vol. 24, no. 1, 1977, pp. 48-50. （11）Marvin Zalman, “The Rise and Fall of the Indeterminate Sentence,” pp. 51-55, 84-86. （12）Michael Tonry, Sentencing Matters, New York: Oxford University Press, 1996, p. 4. （13）Marc Mauer, Race to Incarcerate, New York: The New Press, 1999, pp. 45-49. （14）Marc Mauer, Race to Incarcerate, p. 57; Natasba A. Frost, The Punitive State: Crime, Punishment, and Imprisonment across the United States, New York: LBF Scholarly Publishing LLC, 2006, pp. 18-19; Katherine Beckett, Making Crime Pay: Law and Order in Contemporary American Politics, New York: Oxford University Press, 1997, p. 96. （15）Don Stemen, Andres Rengifo and James Wilson, “Of Fragmentation and Ferment: The Impact of State Sentencing Policies on Incarceration Rates, 1975-2002,” a research report submitted to the Department of Justice, August 2005, p. 14, accessed October 28, 2010, http://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/213003.pdf. （16）Don Stemen, Andres Rengifo and James Wilson, “Of Fragmentation and Ferment: The Impact of State Sentencing Policies on Incarceration Rates, 1975-2002,” p. 16. （17）Michael Tonry, ed., Penal Reform in Overcrowded Times, New York: Oxford University Press, 2001, p. 25. （18）Michael Tonry, Sentencing Matters, p. 72. （19）John Clark, James Austin and D. Alan Henry, “‘Three Strikes and You’re Out‘: A Review of State Legislation,” in National Institute of Justice, Research in Brief, September 1997, accessed October 21, 2010, http://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles/165369.pdf. （20）William J. Clinton, “Address before a Joint Session of the Congress on the State of the Union（January 25, 1994），” Pubic Papers of the Presidents of the United States: William J. Clinton, 1994, Book 1, p. 133, accessed October 15, 2012, http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/PPP-1994-book/pdf/PPP-1994-book1-doc-pg126-3.pdf. （21）Ewing v. California, 538 U. S. 11, 29（2003）。 （22）Natasha A. Frost, The Punitive State: Crime, Punishment, and Imprisonment across the United States, pp. 12-13. （23）William J. Sabol, Katherine Rosich, Kamal Mallik Kane, David Kirk and Glenn Dubin, “Influences of Truth-in-Sentencing Reforms on Changes in States’ Sentencing Practices and Prison Populations, Executive Summary,” a research report submitted to the Department of Justice, July 3, 2002, accessed October 20, 2012, http://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/195163.pdf. （24）Paula M. Ditton and Doris James Wilson, “Truth in Sentencing in State Prisons,” Bureau of Justice Statistics Special Report, January 1999, NCJ 170032, accessed October 29, 2010, http://bjs.ojp.usdoj.gov/content/pub/pdf/tssp.pdf. （25）Jennifer Dobner, “Utah Firing Squad Execution Sobering, Dramatic,” June 18, 2010, accessed October 20, 2010, http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/nation/2010-06-17-utah-firing-squad_N.htm. （26）David Brion Davis, “The Movement to Abolish Capital Punishment in America,” American Historical Review, vol. 63, no. 1, 1957, pp. 26-28. （27）Samuel Walker, Popular Justice: A History of American Criminal Justice, pp. 92-93, 142-144. （28）Lawrence M. Friedman, Crime and Punishment in American History, p. 316. （29）Bureau of Justice Statistics, U. S. Department of Justice, “Number of Persons Executed in the United States, 1930-2009,” in Key Facts at Glance, accessed November 3, 2010, http://bjs.ojp.usdoj.gov/content/glance/tables/exetab.cfm. （30）Furman v. Georgia, 408 U. S. 238, 239-240（1972）。 （31）Gregg v. Georgia, 428 U. S. 153, 169, 206, 207（1976）。 （32）Bureau of Justice Statistics, U. S. Department of Justice, “Number of Persons Executed in the United States, 1930-2009.” （33）Franklin E. Zimring, The Contradiction of American Capital Punishment, New York: Oxford University Press, 2003, pp. 16-17, 28-29. （34）Franklin E. Zimring, The Contradiction of American Capital Punishment, pp. 51-63. （35）Lockett v. Ohio, 438 U. S. 586, 604（1978）。 （36）Franklin E. Zimring, The Contradiction of American Capital Punishment, p. 55. （37）Marie Gottschalk, The Prison and Gallows: The Politics of Mass Incarceration in America, New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006, pp. 165-166. （38）Mapp v. Ohio, 367 U. S. 643（1961）。 （39）Gideon v. Wainwright, 372 U. S. 335, 344（1963）。 （40）Samuel Walker, Popular Justice: A History of American Criminal Justice, pp. 183-184. （41）Miranda v. Arizona, 377 U. S. 201（1966）。 （42）Ruffin v. Commonwealth, 82 Va. （21 Gratt.） 790, 796（1871）。 （43）U. S. ex rel. Atterbury v. Ragen, 237 F. 2d 953, 955（7[th] Cir. 1956）。 （44）Wolff v. McDonnell, 418 U. S. 539, 555-556（1974）。 （45）Cooper v. Pate, 378 U. S. 546（1964）。 （46）James Jacobs, “The Prisoners‘ Rights Movement and Its Impact,” Crime and Justice: An Annual Review of Research, vol. 2, 1980, p. 434. （47）James Jacobs, “The Prisoners’ Rights Movement and Its Impact,” p. 433. （48）Table 5. 65. 2010: Petitions filed in U. S. District Courts by Federal and State Prisoners, Sourcebook of Criminal Justice Statistics Online, accessed November 11, 2010, http://www.albany.edu/sourcebook/pdf/t5652010/pdf. （49）Malcolm M. Feeley and Edward L. Rubin, Judicial Policy Making and the Modern State: How the Courts Reformed America‘s Prisons, New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000, p. 40. 有关案例参见该书第40页的注释89-94。 （50）Holt v. Sarver, 309 F. Supp. 362（Dist. Court, ED Arkansas 1970）。 （51）Malcolm M. Feeley and Edward L. Rubin, Judicial Policy Making and the Modern State: How the Courts Reformed America’s Prisons, pp. 39-40. （52）Illinois v. Gates, 462 U. S. 213（1983）。 （53）United States v. Leon, 468 U. S. 897（1984）。 |