注释：
    ①Albert W.Alschuler,"The Failure of Sentencing Guidelines:A Plea for Less Aggregation," University of Chicago Law Review,vol.58,no.3,1991,p.903; Joseph Kennedy,"Monstrous Offenders and the Search for Solidarity through Modern Punishment," Hastings Law Journal,vol.51.no.5,2000,p.832; Jonathan Simon,"Sanctioning Government:Explaining America's Severity Revolution," University of Miami Law Review,vol.56,no.1,2001,p.219.
    ②Gustave de Beaumont and Alexis de Tocqueville,On the Penitentiary System in the United States and its Applications in France,trans.Francis Lieber,Carbondale:Southern Illinois University Press,1964; John H.Cary,"France Looks to Pennsylvania:The Eastern Penitenuary as a Symbol of Reform," Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography,vol.82,no.2,1958,pp.186-203.
    ③International Center for Prison Studies,"Entire World-Prison Population Rates per 100,000 of the National Population," accessed October 15,2012,http:/www.prisonstudies.org/info/worldbrief/wpb_stats.php?area=all&category=wb_poprate.此处的“西欧、北欧国家”包括英国、西班牙、葡萄牙、卢森堡、希腊、意大利、奥地利、法国、比利时、爱尔兰、荷兰、德国、丹麦、瑞典、芬兰。
    ④Alfred Blumstein,Michael Tonry and Asheley Van Ness,"Cross-National Measures of Punitiveness," in Michael Tonry and David Farrington,eds.,Crime and Punishment in Western Countries,1980-1999,Chicago:University of Chicago Press,2005,p.375.这7个国家是：澳大利亚、加拿大、英国(不包括其中的北爱尔兰)、荷兰、瑞士、瑞典和美国。
    ⑤Lawrence M.Friedman,Crime and Punishment in American History,New York:Basic Books,1993,pp.36-41,48-50,77-82; Samuel Walker,Popular Justice:A History of American Criminal Justice,New York:Oxford University Press,1998,pp.32-36,39-41.
    ⑥Benjamin Rush,Enquiry into the Effects of Public Punishments upon Criminals and upon Society,Philadelphia:Printed by Joseph James,1787,pp.12-13; Chai Woodham,"Eastern State Penitentiary:A Prison with a Past," October 1,2008,accessed October 28,2010,http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history-archaeology/eastern-state-penitentiary.html.
    ⑦Rebecca M.McLennan,The Crisis of Imprisonment:Protests,Politics,and the Making of the American Penal State,1776-1941,New York:Cambridge University Press,2008,pp.37-38.
    ⑧David J.Rothman,"Perfecting the Prison:United States,1789-1865," in Norval Morris and David Rothman,eds.,The Oxford History of the Prison,New York:Oxford University Press,1995,p.124.
    ⑨Enoch C.Wines and Theodore W.Dwight,Report on the Prisons and Reformatories of the United States and Canada,Albany,New York:Van Benthuysen & Sons,1867,pp.287-288.
    ⑩Marvin Zalman,"The Rise and Fall of the Indeterminate Sentence," Wayne Law Review,vol.24,no.1,1977,pp.48-50.
    (11)Marvin Zalman,"The Rise and Fall of the Indeterminate Sentence," pp.51-55,84-86.
    (12)Michael Tonry,Sentencing Matters,New York:Oxford University Press,1996,p.4.
    (13)Marc Mauer,Race to Incarcerate,New York:The New Press,1999,pp.45-49.
    (14)Marc Mauer,Race to Incarcerate,p.57; Natasba A.Frost,The Punitive State:Crime,Punishment,and Imprisonment across the United States,New York:LBF Scholarly Publishing LLC,2006,pp.18-19; Katherine Beckett,Making Crime Pay:Law and Order in Contemporary American Politics,New York:Oxford University Press,1997,p.96.
    (15)Don Stemen,Andres Rengifo and James Wilson,"Of Fragmentation and Ferment:The Impact of State Sentencing Policies on Incarceration Rates,1975-2002," a research report submitted to the Department of Justice,August 2005,p.14,accessed October 28,2010,http://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/213003.pdf.
    (16)Don Stemen,Andres Rengifo and James Wilson,"Of Fragmentation and Ferment:The Impact of State Sentencing Policies on Incarceration Rates,1975-2002," p.16.
    (17)Michael Tonry,ed.,Penal Reform in Overcrowded Times,New York:Oxford University Press,2001,p.25.